#OnThisDay: Selected Historical Events in the month of October
October
In October 1603, the Sangley Rebellion broke out in the Philippines, causing thousands of Chinese deaths. Earlier, it was reported in 1602 that three mandarins (scholar-officials) with a retinue of around a hundred companions arrived in Manila supposedly to verify the existence of a "mountain of gold" which was called Chia-i-shan (機易山). It was estimated to be able to produce some 10,000 taels of gold (around 400 kilograms) and 30,000 taels of silver (around 1,200 kilograms) a year.
The mandarins were identified as Wang Shih-ho (王時和), Deputy Magistrate of Hai-teng (Fujian), Kan I-cheng (干一成), and Chang-I (張嶷). In their understanding, the territory was not yet owned, giving them the liberty to explore there. This place was later interpreted as the mountains of Cavite, which was geographically near Manila, but was definitely not an island separated from Luzon.
When the mandarins left after gathering earth samples, suspicion of the Chinese did not decrease. It was only a decade ago, in 1593, when Chinese mutineers took the life of the previous Spanish Governor General, Gomez Perez Dasmariñas. The arrival of the mandarins seemed to be a prelude to a Chinese invasion. The paranoia was fueled by market forces. Rumors of increased military activity and alleged new regulations raised the iron prices, with the Chinese in the Philippines taking advantage of the profitable situation by selling everything they got. In response, the Spanish colonial government, under Governor General Pedro Bravo de Acuña, rounded up the overpricing merchants and had them killed.
What came after was confusion. In one account, a Tagalog woman was said to have bared to the Church a plot she learned from her Chinese husband. That is, a rebellion would begin on October 4, the feast day of Francis of Assisi. Thereafter, some 4,000 Chinese have reportedly set fire the house of Captain Esteban de Marquina and killed his entire household. Thus, allied with the local population and the Japanese, the Spanish fought against the Chinese for 18 days to defeat the rebellion.
In another account, it was the Spanish response to the Chinese profiteers and the destruction of their gardens which triggered a Chinese exodus from the Binondo settlement (built in 1594) to a place they called Lun-shan (崙山), which was interpreted by some as nearby Tondo. They put up palisade walls and sought to keep the Spanish out. At first, it seemed the Spanish meant to keep the peace by sending an envoy to negotiate. The Chinese, unable to trust the Spanish, killed the envoy. This prompted the Spanish to starve the Chinese by establishing their forces around the area. After three days, the Chinese broke out of their encampment out of desperation, falling into the trap of the Spanish. In both accounts, the death toll mounted to around 25,000.
Acuña, while proud of his military achievement, did not dare to elaborate in his report to the Spanish King the reasons behind the rebellion. On the other side of the sea, the Wanli Emperor was said to have punished Chang-I in 1604 for giving the court false hopes and allegedly starting the rebellion that broke out in Manila. The estimated death toll from the fighting that reached the imperial court was 20,000.
Despite calls to limit the Chinese population, especially from the Church, the Spanish colonial government believed it better to regulate their trade and earn in the process. Some 6,000 Chinese had settled by 1605. Acuña also reasoned to the Spanish Crown that the Chinese were not technically vassals to the King, and the rebellion was not the will of many of the Chinese, citing that provoking them as Dasmariñas did might cause trouble.
The name they attributed to them by the Spanish and the namesake of the rebellion, Sangley, had different possible origins. One of them would be sang-lei (shengli, 生理), which meant business, work, or livelihood. Another would be soeng-leoi (shanglu, 商旅) or travelling merchant. Yet another potential source would be siong-lai-lang (changlai, 常來) or frequent visitor. Sangley Point in Cavite was believed to have been named after this term.
October
From June to October 1887, the Philippine Exposition was held at Parque del Buen Retiro in Madrid with eight sections. Perhaps taking example from the 1883 International Colonial and Export Exhibition in the Netherlands, the Spanish government envisioned to demonstrate its own status as a world power and the progress it had introduced to their colonies even as the nation had faced internal conflict (e.g., the Carlist Wars) and troubles overseas (e.g., Ten Years' War in Cuba).
The Philippines, while portrayed as rich in cultural prowess and a viable place for investment forging through the path of development, was also shown as a backwater of a colony with limited capacity on "science, education, and the Spanish language", among other fields. This earned the ire of Filipinos, particularly those living in Spain itself, who appeared to have not been consulted in organizing the exposition. They argued that the 30 Filipinos chosen for the exposition, including those from the Pacific territories such as the Marianas and the Carolinas, were not an accurate representation of the entire colony, raising the propensity for discrimination.
Jose Rizal would write of it as not being a Philippine Exposition at all but "an Exposition of Igorots" while Graciano Lopez Jaena saw it as an attempt to "demonstrate the Filipino infantile condition." Filipinos, however, were not alone in their dismal review of the exposition.
Some in the Spanish media also noticed how the Philippines was put in negative light without taking into consideration that it was Spain governing the islands in the first place. For instance, while Filipinos have an aptitude to be multilingual people, it was observed that some Filipinos participating in the exposition were not fluent in the Spanish language.
1st October
Every October 1 has been regarded as International #CoffeeDay. While this commemoration began only in 2015, some nations have earlier designated their own days to appreciate the well-loved beverage. Japan, for one, was one of them when the All Japan Coffee Association (全日本コーヒー協会) launched their event during the 1980s.
As for Filipinos, while reported to consume some 3 kilograms of coffee a year, they did not always cultivate coffee in the country. It was believed that the Spanish brought coffee to the Philippines, initially planted in Batangas, around the year 1740. Locally called "kape," it has since developed into a cash crop for the former Spanish colony, with coffee exports reaching as far as the United States. When global production plummeted due to the prevalence of "coffee rust" (Hemileia vastatrix) from 1887 to 1889, the Philippines took the role as the world's leading coffee exporter.
Value share of coffee in agricultural exports today, however, had been insignificant. From 2015 to 2019, coffee's share to the total ranged from 0.001 to 0.002 percent.
2nd October
Every October 2 has been observed as the International Day of #NonViolence since 2007, the date inspired by the #birthday of Indian nationalist and rights advocate Mahatma Gandhi. Yet even before Gandhi, born on this day in 1869, and his peaceful campaign for Indian independence from British rule would be the Philippines and its Reform Movement. Prominent Filipinos such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Isabelo de los Reyes, Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, and Jose Maria Panganiban have advocated through various means the betterment of what was then a Spanish colony.
3rd October
On October 3, 1895, Dr. Candido M. Africa was born in Batangas. Known for his research on parasitology, his studies brought him to various institutions such as the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Johns Hopkins University, and Institut für Tropenmedizin in Germany. Africa was involved in the Council of Scientists. He died in 1945.
4th October
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Sputnik 1 (Спутник-1) became the first man-made satellite to orbit the Earth. Launched from the iconic R-7 Semyorka rocket, developed by the OKB-1 under Chief Designer Sergei Korolev from the German V-2, Sputnik reached as high as 939 kilometers. Intended for a 22-day mission, powered by its own battery, and stripped of much scientific equipment in a rush to beat the United States to outer space, the artificial satellite would remain in orbit until January 4, 1958, four months later.
As for the R-7, while eventually phased out from Soviet military use as a ballistic missile in favor of other variants such as the R-11 Zemlya (NATO designation Scud-A) and R-17 Elbrus (NATO designation Scud-B), the R-7 would continue to be utilized in some 1,800 launches to space, making R-7 and its derivatives as one of the most used rocket families in the world.
Sputnik opened the so-called Space Age and allowed humanity to set their sights to the "new frontier." Nearly six decades after Sputnik, the Philippines would have its own microsatellite launched into orbit with Diwata-1 in 2016. The rocket used would be the American Atlas V. Filipino designers also developed the Maya nanosatellites following that of Diwata.
On March 23, 2016, the Philippines launched its first artificial satellite, the 50-kg Diwata-1, also known as PHL-Microsat-1. The success of the Diwata series, which boosted Filipino surveillance and imagery capacities, set the stage for the establishment of the Philippine Space Agency on August 8, 2019. While it remains to be seen how a space agency with no launching capability (Diwata was launched at the United States), space engineer institutions (Diwata's manufacturing was done in cooperation with Japan), nor astronaut training facilities can keep the space program going, but as Filipinos begin to have an increasing role beyond the skies, perhaps we can hope to see more historic milestones in space exploration in the near future.
5th October
On October 5, 2015, Senator Ceferino "Joker" Arroyo died in the Unites States. He was 88. Seen as a "gadfly" of every Filipino president, the Naga-born lawyer began practicing in 1953, for the most part having no real political stances. In his view, rights advocates were beholden more by conscience than politics.
In 1973, he became one of the lawyers involved in Javellana vs. Executive Secretary, et al., also known as the Ratification Cases, which decided on the legality of the 1973 Constitution. The Supreme Court eventually upheld the new constitution as effective and valid, dismissing the petitions which argued against the legitimacy of the ratification.
Standing up for human rights and representing cases on rights abuses during the Marcos administration, Arroyo himself would be imprisoned for three months in 1978. His experience in jail, while he saw as relatively kind and gentle, was also a source of dismay since he was aware of the conditions which less privileged prisoners were undergoing. Then again, Arroyo on his part also attempted to be objective in observing that Martial Law under Marcos might have not been as repressive as authoritarian regimes elsewhere.
During the administration of Corazon Aquino, he was appointed Executive Secretary. During his stint from 1986 to 1987, he earned the suspicion of being friendly with Communists, leading to his removal from office. In 1992, he would serve as Makati representative, his career in the Lower House culminating with the role as Lead Prosecutor of the impeachment trial of Former President Joseph Estrada.
In 2001, he was elected to the Senate with 11.2 million votes, a position which he would be reelected in 2007. As senator, he refused to receive any Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF), even revealing that a significant amount was allocated to his fellow senators during the impeachment trial of Chief Justice Renato Corona in 2011. He was one of the senators who voted "not guilty" for Corona, the others being Miriam Defensor Santiago and Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos, Jr.
One of his final pieces of legislation would be the Human Rights Victims' Reparation and Recognition Act (Republic Act No. 10368), signed in February 2013. This aimed to recognize the sacrifices of all Filipinos who were victims of human rights violations committed during the Marcos regime, specifically from the years 1972 to 1986, providing for monetary and non-monetary reparations for them or their legal heirs.
6th October
On October 6, 1762, British forces successfully occupied Manila, the Spanish colonial capital in the Philippines, after two weeks of fighting. Led by Colonel (later General) William Draper and Vice Admiral Samuel Cornish, the initial landing force consisting of the 1,000-strong 79th Regiment faced a similarly sized Spanish contingent supported by some 10,000 Filipino troops. Inclement weather did not help the British offensive as strong winds kept their 14-ship fleet from significantly assisting the expedition.
When the weather permitted, the British fleet landed 1,000 more troops, this time from the ranks of their sailors, along with artillery pieces which allowed bombardment of the city. The Spanish, as they attempted to break out of the city, was repelled back to Manila by the British. On October 4/5, a Filipino force composed of 1,000 Kapampangans conducted a ferocious charge against the British encampment. However, being ill-equipped and badly led, the Filipinos suffered around 70 casualties before being driven out, but not without inflicting 40 casualties on the British. Some observers felt in retrospect that if the courageous Filipinos had better weapons and strategy, they might have been in a more favorable position in fighting the battle.
After this failed counterattack, the British resumed their offensive, finding the city abandoned by most of its population and only a little over 1,000 remaining for the eventual surrender of Spanish Governor General and Archbishop Manuel Rojo del Rio. Despite this formal capitulation, most of the Philippines still remained resistant to the British, with Simon de Anda establishing a provisional government in Bacolor, Pampanga. Then again, there were also Filipinos receptive to the British rule, such as Diego Silang who the British granted the governorship of Ilocos.
7th October
On October 7, 1951, Manila gang leader Nicasio "Asiong" Salonga was killed by close range fire in Tondo a few days before his 27th birthday, the perpetrator believed to be a certain Ernesto Reyes, member of a rival gang.
The son of a police officer, Salonga was imprisoned in Bilibid in May 1944. He escaped when he was about to be transferred to Camp Nichols in Pasay in the same year, only to be arrested again in 1946 in order to complete his full sentence of six months and one day.
Salonga gained notoriety in the postwar period as "Tondo's kingpin", assembling a gang of 12 key members to disrupt and dominate Manila's mobs. Despite his life of crime and defiance to the law, he was regarded as a folk hero as well, being compared by some to Robin Hood as he lavished the poor with his mobster wealth.
Politics also loomed large in the elusive Salonga's career. He was a loyal supporter of the Liberal Party since its formation in 1946. Thus, when the gangster met his demise five years later, a political aspect was also explored at the time since he shifted his support to the Nacionalista Party shortly before being killed.
Salonga was portrayed multiple times in popular culture, among them being Joseph Ejercito Estrada's 1961 film "Asiong Salonga" and Rudy Fernandez's 1978 film "Salonga."
7th October
On October 7, 1571, the Battle of Lepanto in the Ionian Sea saw the naval victory of the Christian Holy League over the Ottoman Empire. The Holy League, led by Don Juan of Austria, half-brother of Spanish King Philip II, assembled over 200 galleys from the Spanish Empire and the Italian states to face a larger Turkish fleet under Admirals Ali Pasha and Mehmed Sirocco. In commemoration of this, Pope Pius V instituted the Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary, also known as Our Lady of Victory.
Since the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, when Sultan Mehmed II conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, it was believed the Muslim Turks were virtually unbeatable in battle. Lepanto's outcome raised not only Christian morale, but also became a decisive factor in dividing the Mediterranean between the two factions in the long term.
Religious attributions on the triumph aside, the League's victory was also owed to the technological superiority of the Europeans, who used better guns and artillery. Lepanto marked the end of rowed galleys as a military centerpiece, further demonstrated in the English and the Spanish Armada in 1588.
Lepanto, however, did not break the Ottoman drive as Muslim expansion in North Africa and Eastern Europe continued in the next two decades. The Holy League, meanwhile, did not last. The Christian coalition would be effectively disbanded by 1573, failing to coordinate their efforts in checking renewed Ottoman activity. It only took six months for the Turkish fleet to be restored to 1571 levels.
In 1887, one of the notable portrayals of the Battle of Lepanto was by Filipino painter Juan Luna, an artwork commissioned by the Spanish government and unveiled in the Palacio del Senado in Madrid. This earned Luna a medal in the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition.
8th October
On October 8, 1967, Argentine physician and revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara was captured by Bolivian forces. He was believed to have been executed a day later, the Bolivian government anticipating that his continued existence might exacerbate the Communist insurgency. Guevara, on his part, thought it would be more beneficial for his captors to keep him alive, a view they did not share.
A leader of the Cuban Revolution that overthrew the military rule of Colonel Fulgencio Batista in 1959, Guevara was largely influenced by the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in his theories on "Third World" exploitation, the effects of colonialism, and the global proletarian revolution. Believing that liberation was not merely a national phenomenon, he expounded on these ideas in trips that covered five continents, including the United States. In 1964, he addressed the United Nations General Assembly on "peaceful coexistence" between nations of different politico-economic systems, regardless of historical or present relations.
Guevara's iconic image, taken in 1960, had taken a different path from his revolutionary life. From fashion to art, from films to sports, the photograph which had become known as "Guerrillero Heroico" had become a nearly omnipresent motif even in the Philippines, although the Argentinian probably never visited the country, nor do many Filipinos realize his Communist background. This was seen as a type of "Rashomon effect" which indicated a deviation from the original meaning of what was witnessed.
8th October
On October 8, 1954, the Philippines and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) opened formal diplomatic relations. Thereafter, a legation was established in Bonn, which would be promoted to an embassy in 1962. Meanwhile, relations with the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) would begin on September 22, 1973, with an embassy opening in East Berlin. The Bonn embassy would remain until 1999, when German reunification eventually moved it to Berlin.
Germans, however, have been visiting the Philippines even before the Second World War. For instance, the German Club in Manila emerged in the 19th century. A German squadron visited Sulu in 1878, while another German squadron arrived in Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War in 1898. It was also Germany which acquired the Pacific possessions of Spain besides the Philippines a year later, in 1899, including the Marianas.
9th October
On October 9, 1446, the Hunmingjeongeum (훈민정음) was published to introduce the Korean script which would become known as Hangul/Hangeul (한글). The date would later be the foundation of commemorating Korean Alphabet Day or Choson-gul Day (조선글날).
In 1443, King Sejong the Great initiated the creation of Hangul to promote literacy, especially among the less educated. Prior to this, Koreans mostly used the Chinese script. There was a time Hangul was not well received, however, despite its initial propagation. In 1504, King Yeonsangun banned the script and closed Sungkyunkwan for conversion as a pleasure place. In their protests, discontented Koreans used Hangul in their posters.
In recent years, Hangul gained popularity in the Philippines. Korean, among other foreign languages, was included as an elective subject by the Department of Education DepEd Tayo in 2017. Koreatowns have also emerged in places like Manila and Angeles, Pampanga.
9th October
On October 9, 1871, General Tomas Mascardo was born in Cavite. A school teacher prior to the Philippine Revolution, he would first see action in Tanauan, Batangas, resulting to a Filipino victory. Mascardo also fought in Zapote Bridge in February 1897, which witnessed the death of General Edilberto Evangelista, while Mascardo himself was wounded in battle. He would eventually be commanding general during the Filipino-American War, which position would bring him in conflict with General Antonio Luna, who was Chief of Operations in Central Luzon.
In the lead-up to the Battle of Calumpit, also known as the Battle of Bagbag River, in April 1899, Luna wanted Mascardo's troops to reinforce the lines in anticipation of the American offensive. Mascardo, however, did not only refuse to comply, he moved from Guagua to Arayat, 30 kilometers further north. The Caviteño general believed Luna had a personal score to settle with him, and apparently wanted to avoid as much as possible being involved with Luna's affairs. Then again, as the theater of war moved from Bulacan to Mascardo's area in Pampanga, it seemed inevitable for the two to clash.
In an attempt to diffuse the situation, President Emilio Aguinaldo decided to imprison Mascardo for 24 hours, but the resolution came too late. The battle was already lost even as Luna rushed to return, his decision to remove essential troops from the frontline in order to deal with Mascardo presumably dooming the Filipino defense. Three Americans received the Medal of Honor for the victory in Calumpit.
Mascardo surrendered on May 15, 1901, after sending Manuel Quezon to verify the capture of Aguinaldo a few months earlier. After the war, he would serve as governor of Cavite from 1910 to 1912. He died on July 7, 1932.
10th October
On October 10, 1911, the Xinhai Geming (辛亥革命) or Double Ten Revolution erupted in Qing China, the four-month struggle resulting to the formation of the Republic of China with Dr. Sun Yat-sen as first Provisional President. This also ended the millennia-long imperial system.
General Yuan Shikai, who for the past two years had been relieved of all government positions, was requested by the Qing court to return as Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet, which he did by November 1911. Instead of defending the Qing, he replaced many court positions with Han Chinese and negotiated with the revolutionaries. Despite popular unrest, the Sun-led republic was in a precarious situation. By agreeing to Yuan's proposition to grant him the presidency, Sun's counteroffer was to move the capital of the new nation south to Nanjing, which would have removed Yuan from his center of power in the north. It did not prevail.
For the next few years, Yuan seemed to be adapting to the new system, conducting elections for the National Assembly. However, by 1915 Yuan crowned himself as the Hongxian Emperor, a title he abandoned after 83 days. While modernization and restoration of national stability was at the forefront of the Yuan administration, it did not appear to proceed in the direction envisioned by the revolutionaries of 1911. Yuan's death in 1916 triggered the eventual breakup of China, with Sun and his successor Chiang Kai-shek having to fight for every province in the next decade. This was also the setting with which the first National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) would be convened in 1921.
Sun had been scheming the transition of China to a republic long before the Xinhai Revolution. In 1895, the foiled Guangzhou Uprising forced Sun and his associates to move to Japan, where they would meet, among others, Filipino revolutionaries who were fighting for independence. Believing in the principles espoused by the Filipinos and seeing the benefits of having the Philippines as an ally, Sun helped Mariano Ponce acquire arms, including Murata rifles used in the First Sino-Japanese War. Filipino works were also translated into Chinese. For one, Jose Rizal's Mi Ultimo Adios had 21 Chinese translations.
10th October
On October 10, 1915, Francisco "Kiko" Trinidad was born in Manila. Regarded as the "Father of Philippine Radio" and the "Dean of Filipino Broadcasters", he worked as an announcer and program arranger with FEBC (Far East Broadcasting Company), a Christian radio network which first aired in the Philippines through 680 AM KZAS (later 702 AM DZAS). He also entered government service, becoming general manager of the Philippine Broadcasting Service (PBS), which acquired the wartime radio station KZSO (later DZFM, now 738 AM DZRB) and transformed it into the state radio network. Pioneering distance learning through radio, legislative hearings and cultural exchanges were also aired in the spirit of educating the public via the medium.
He was representative of the Philippines to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) when the initial call sign of radio stations in the country was changed from K to D. Luzon stations were provided the call signs DZ and DW, Visayas stations DY, and Mindanao stations DX, a setup that continued to this day.
After retiring from PBS in 1970, Trinidad taught in the University of the Philippines for the next decade. PBS, meanwhile, was abolished in 1972 during Martial Law, and was replaced by the Bureau of Broadcast Services (BBS). From 1986 to 1990, he served as Secretary General of the Philippine National Commission for UNESCO. He died on January 21, 2001.
11th October
On October 11, 1531, Huldrych Zwingli was killed in battle against Roman Catholic forces in Zurich. Zwingli was ordained a Catholic priest in 1506, but was reformed mainly due to the influence of Desiderius Erasmus, who he met in 1514. In 1518, Zwingli became a pastor in Zurich, and he began the Reformation in Switzerland. After Martin Luther and John Calvin, Zwingli is often called the "Third Man of the Reformation."
12th October
On October 12, 539 BC, Babylon was taken virtually unopposed by the Persian King Cyrus the Great, who earlier defeated the Babylonian army in nearby Opis, believed to be around 80 kilometers from modern-day Baghdad, Iraq.
While Nabonidus was officially the Babylonian ruler at this time, it was believed that his son Belshazzar was in actual command of their forces, Nabonidus supposedly reigning from Tayma in Arabia for the past decade. It was in this setting where the Bible documented the famous "Writing on the Wall", as narrated in Daniel 5. Although it was unclear why Belshazzar, supposedly pressured by the Persian offensive, would have the audacity to hold a feast in Babylon, the Bible firmly attributed this scene as the pronouncement of Babylon's fall. That is, MENE, MENE, TEKEL, PARSIN - the kingdom's days have been numbered and it would be divided up by the Medes and the Persians. The chapter ended with the death of Belshazzar and the occupation of the city through a certain Darius the Mede, rather than King Cyrus himself.
As for Daniel, who once served under Nabonidus's predecessor Nebuchadnezzar and was the one able to interpret the Writing on the Wall, the Bible would continue to narrate how he was once more placed in a high position in the new Persian government.
Greek historian Xenophon, meanwhile, would say it was Nabonidus who was killed upon the fall of Babylon. Still, the Babylonian Berossus would beg to differ, citing that Nabonidus was instead spared by Cyrus and was appointed as governor, which he would serve until his death.
The Writing on the Wall would be used as a plot device by Jose Rizal later on with his 1891 novel El Filibusterismo, using a piece of paper that came with an exploding lamp to convey the message, implying a similar fate as those of the Babylonians in the Book of Daniel.
12th October
On October 12, 1868, Vice President Mariano Trias was born in Cavite. Taking up the codename Labong (bamboo shoot), he was believed to have joined the Katipunan during his studies in Manila. He took a degree in medicine at the University of Santo Tomas before returning to Cavite to help in the family's agricultural holdings. By this time, he also began recruitment for the revolutionary society.
When the Philippine Revolution erupted, Trias fought in the Battle of Noveleta, which became one of the early Filipino victories. Noveleta took place on August 30, 1896, which saw the revolutionaries face some 3,000 Spanish troops. When Filipino forces in Cavite became increasingly fragmented politically, Trias joined the Magdiwang faction which supported the leadership of Supremo Andres Bonifacio.
In the Tejeros Convention in March 1897, Trias was nominated first for the presidency of the proposed government, but lost to Emilio Aguinaldo, who was elected in absentia. When the motion to proclaim the second placer, namely Andres Bonifacio, as vice president was defeated, Trias won the election for the vice presidency. The subsequent Naic Assembly reaffirmed Trias's new position.
The Spanish Governor General Basilio Augustin, in anticipation of American arrival in the Philippines when Spain entered into war with the United States, organized a Filipino militia in 1898, of which revolutionary leaders such as Trias and Artemio Ricarte joined. The return of Aguinaldo, however, caused the collapse of the militia as the Filipinos defected.
During the second phase of the Revolution, he was appointed Secretary of Finance, a position he would serve in until May 1899. Thereafter, Trias was appointed Secretary of War. The outbreak of the Filipino-American War placed Trias in commanding general of Southern Luzon, and the designated successor to the presidency. Placed in charge of investigating what triggered the conflict with the Americans, his report on March 15, 1899 identified the United States as the aggressive party while Filipino troops around Manila were peaceful.
His ascension to the top post of the land was not meant to be, however, when Trias with other Filipino officials surrendered to the United States on March 15, 1901, eight days before the capture of Aguinaldo in Isabela. This left Trias's second in command, Miguel Malvar, leading what was left of the Filipino forces.
A founder of the Nacionalista Party, he was appointed governor of Cavite in July 1901, a position he would serve until 1905. He was part of the Filipino delegation who would participate in the St. Louis World Fair or the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Trias died on February 22, 1914. His hometown of San Francisco de Malabon was renamed General Trias in his honor by virtue of Act No. 2889, approved on February 24, 1920.
13th October
On October 13, 1868, General Teresa Magbanua was born in Iloilo. After obtaining a teaching certificate in Colegio de Doña Cecilia and a master's degree in University of Santo Tomas, she returned to her hometown in Pototan to teach. During the Philippine Revolution, she contributed in organizing the Katipunan chapter in her province, although it was believed she would first see action in 1898, when she led a battle in Pilar, Capiz. She continued her revolutionary activities despite the refusal of her husband, Alejandro Balderas.
When the Americans landed in February 1899, Magbanua was among the Filipino leaders to command the defense of Iloilo. In the Second Battle of Jaro, also known as the Battle of Balantang, in March, she distinguished herself in the fighting that resulted to the reoccupation of Filipino forces of Jaro. She led the troops in their march commemorating the liberation.
Magbanua surrendered to the United States in 1900. While she appeared to have been accorded no official rank in the armed forces, she was nonetheless regarded by her followers as a "general." During the Second World War, while she was not fighting in the battlefield, Magbanua did what she could to help in the Filipino cause, including financial assistance. She eventually moved to Pagadian where she died in 1947.
13th October
On October 13, 2016, King Rama IX of Thailand, personal name Bhumibol Adulyadej (ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช), died in Bangkok. One of the longest reigning monarchs in modern history with 70 years on the throne, the king only made a single state visit to the Philippines, which formal relations with Thailand began in 1949. Rama IX was the first Thai monarch born in the United States, on December 5, 1927.
In July 1963, Rama IX visited Manila and Baguio, wherein he met President Diosdado Macapagal. Contact with Thailand, and its predecessor Siam, had been established centuries before. In the Boxer Codex (c. 1590s) for instance, the Siamese were illustrated.
14th October
On October 14, 1943, the independence of the Philippines was formalized under the Japanese-sponsored Second Republic with Jose Laurel, Sr. as President and Benigno Aquino, Sr. as Speaker of the National Assembly. Posing as liberators from "Western" colonization and advocates of the nationalist philosophy "Asia for the Asians", Japan pledged early during their military occupation the preparation for Filipino independence. When Prime Minister Tojo Hideki visited the Philippines in May 1943, he reiterated this promise, prompting the creation of the constitution by September of the same year.
The Filipino flag was raised by Emilio Aguinaldo and Artemio Ricarte, affirming the Japanese sense of Philippine history.
In the geopolitical front, all nations "liberated" by the Japanese were in reality subservient to Japan itself through what they called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (大東亜共栄圏), its theorists believing that the Japanese were superior to the rest of the Asian peoples. Despite this, Filipino leaders who collaborated did what they could to soften the tactics of the Japanese military, who still had a governor general assigned in the Philippines until the end of the Second World War.
Notably, the Laurel administration held firm against Filipino conscription in the Japanese armed forces, and made attempts to return to a certain degree of normalcy such as the reopening of schools, the resumption of economic activity, and the resolution of food shortages, among other reforms. The republic was also a conscious choice among the Filipino leaders, who rejected the Japanese proposition of establishing a dictatorship to govern the independent nation.
15th October
On October 15, 2018, Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen died in Seattle. Yet his contributions to Filipino historiography remain, particularly on locating the sinking site of Japanese battleship Musashi, one of the largest in the world along with her sister Yamato-class ships.
In 2015, Allen and his research team claimed to have found the wreck of Musashi in Sibuyan Sea, but was then a source of controversy since the Philippine government, as well as the Romblon LGU, stated that they were not informed beforehand of the search expedition. The search area covered more than 1,200 square kilometers, nearly the same size as the entire Romblon province. Eventually, in 2017, the Philippine government partnered with Allen's team after thorough review of existing legal mandates and provided them the necessary permits to continue their exploration. It was in the same year when Allen's team found the wreck of USS Indianapolis, a heavy cruiser believed to be torpedoed off the Philippine Sea.
15th October
On October 15, 1978, Dr. Gregorio Zara died. Among his better known works include his own version of the "videophone" which he demonstrated in 1954 and patented the next year. Making use of "photo phone signal separator network", the Filipino scientist's creation allowed people to talk and view each other at the same time, a two-way television-based phone, predating the 1956 development of related technology by the American Bell Labs called the "picturephone."
Other Zara patents would be a solar-powered water heater, an induction compass for pilots, and an airplane engine that runs on alcohol fuel. He also contributed in robotics, helping in the development of the walking Marex X-10.
In the realm of physics, he worked in 1930 with concepts on electrical kinetic resistance. It was in the same year he finished his doctorate in physics at Sorbonne. He obtained his bachelor's degree on mechanical engineering just four years earlier, in 1926, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) through a scholarship grant.
His government service featured his technical expertise as he worked in the Department of Public Works and Communications, as well as the Department of Defense. He also shared his knowledge through teaching, becoming a professor in the Far East Air Transport Incorporated University (FEATI) in 1946 and vice president of the institution until 1962. Along with Juan Salcedo, Jr. and Alfredo Santos, Zara became one of the first National Scientists of the Philippines, awarded in 1978.
The Senate would be reestablished once more as People Power swept the nation and the 1987 Constitution was crafted. This would be the current framework with which the Philippine Senate continues to operate to this day. As it was in 1916, the Philippines still has 24 senators, although they no longer represent regional districts but were elected nationwide at-large.
17th October
On October 17, 1973, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) ministers recommended an embargo on nations which they believed to have contributed to Israel's defense in the Yom Kippur War, also known as the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. Earlier, member states already raised their posted price for oil, quadrupling the prices from 3 US dollars per barrel before the embargo to a peak of 12 US dollars by 1974 while cutting supply.
The Philippines was not spared from the global repercussions of the 1973 energy crisis. In response, President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. signed Presidential Decree 334 on November 9 to create the Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC) which aimed to stabilize the supply and develop the local petroleum market. PNOC eventually became one of the largest sources of income for the Philippines. In 1979, the nation began producing its own petroleum through Nido-1, which had a commercial production rate of 40,000 barrels per day. Production of the Nido fields ceased in 2019.
Diversification of energy sources was also in the agenda of the Marcos administration, decreasing dependence of electric power plants on oil imports and expanding renewable sources. By 1985, renewable energy sources constitute around 50 percent of total electricity generation in the Philippines, compared to 25 percent in 2017, three decades later. The achievements of Marcos's National Energy Program (NEP) fell short of its optimistic targets, however, with actual power production being less than their projected contributions to the electric grid.
18th October
On October 18, 1565, the Battle of Fukuda Bay saw the first recorded engagement between European and Japanese forces. A Portuguese carrack (kurofune) under Captain João Pereira, intending to trade with Yokoseura in Saikai, was persuaded by information on the port's destruction to proceed instead to Fukuda, some 40 kilometers away. Accompanied by a galleon commanded by Diogo de Menezes, they were eventually confronted by the fleet of Takanobu Matsura, daimyo (lord) of Hirado.
Matsura earlier expelled the Christians in his domain after years of tolerance, and believed his action against the Portuguese would serve as punishment for trying to find a new port of entry. With 10 sekibunes (each capable of carrying one cannon) and 60 kobayas, the Japanese numerical advantage did not fare well against superior Portuguese firepower. Three sekibunes were said to have been sunk before the Hirado called off the action.
The Philippines was also believed to have been a venue of Japanese engagements against Europeans, this time in combat with Spanish troops. The details on this, however, may seem quite different compared to what was portrayed in popular culture.
19th October
On October 19, 1886, Associate Justice Jorge Bocobo was born in Gerona, Tarlac. Being one of the first Filipino students sent to the United States to study, which became known as the pensionados, he proceeded to finish law in Indiana University in 1907. He would obtain Doctor of Laws at the University of Southern California in 1930. Upon returning, he taught law in the University of the Philippines and would eventually become University President from 1934 to 1939, bringing with his service the belief on the importance of moral guidance, human rights, sense of history, and women's education. After his presidency, he would be appointed as Secretary of Public Instruction, succeeding Vice President Sergio Osmeña.
A member of the Central United Methodist Church and an advocate of Protestant evangelism, Bocobo wrote the national prayer on the occasion of the Day of Prayer for Philippine Independence in February 1926.
His service as an Associate Justice during the Japanese occupation, however, would lead American authorities to doubt Bocobo's person. He was charged with treason in May 1945, although his name would eventually be cleared.
As Chair of the Code Commission, Bocobo was attributed the creation of the Civil Code of the Philippines, an effort to replace the Spanish Civil Code which remained in place even through the Commonwealth years. The Civil Code was enacted in 1949. Meanwhile, this legal achievement earned him the Presidential Merit Award from President Elpidio Quirino.
Bocobo was also known for his translation work, which included Jose Rizal's novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, Andres Bonifacio's Decalogue, and the national anthem Lupang Hinirang. He died on July 23, 1965.
20th October
On October 20, 1944, American forces under General Douglas MacArthur, accompanied by top Filipino officials including President Sergio Osmeña, Sr. and Carlos P. Romulo, landed on Leyte after intense naval fire from ships led by Vice Admiral Thomas Kinkaid. This officially commenced the Battle of Leyte. Earlier, preliminary landings had been conducted in Suluan, Homonhon, and Dinagat Islands while recon teams cleared the Leyte beaches in preparation for the main American landing.
The guerrilla movement in Leyte was organized as early as 1942, never ceasing in their fight against the Japanese. Meanwhile, as far as MacArthur was concerned, Leyte was the fulfillment of his iconic promise before departing for Australia in 1942: "I shall return."
The Japanese military, under the command of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, might have not been completely taken by surprise as they observed how the northern tilt of initial skirmishes off the Philippine Sea reduced hints of the American main force landing in Mindanao, although the initial Japanese force in Leyte numbered only around 20,000 out of the 400,000 Japanese soldiers in the Philippines. When they realized that the island would be the focal point of the American campaign, the Japanese poured some 60,000 more troops in an attempt to engage in what they believed would be a decisive battle.
The reinforcement proved problematic for MacArthur and his planners. It was one thing to land a massive force of over 120,000 troops, a number that would eventually grow to a total of around 200,000 over the course of the campaign, but it was another to provide for their logistics. The situation was exacerbated by operational habits which reminded of his initial response against the 1941 Japanese offensive towards Luzon. Overall, the campaign extended until December 1944, coinciding with the tail-end of the Pacific typhoon season. The Japanese suffered over 70,000 casualties while the Americans had some 15,000 casualties.
21st October
On October 21, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. issued Presidential Decree No. 27, also known as the Tenant Emancipation Act. The only handwritten law in modern Filipino history thus far, tenants were accorded the right to own the land they cultivate for the first time, provided they would be members of farmers' cooperatives. The decree was also limited in lands cultivating rice and corn, excluding areas that raised cash crops like tobacco, coconut, and sugar, among others.
Prior to this, share tenancy was abolished in lieu of leasehold tenancy as provided for by Republic Act No. 3844, also known as the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963. This law also created the Land Bank of the Philippines for distribution and sale to small landowners. In practice, however, share tenancy still remained by the time Presidential Decree No. 27 was issued.
Meanwhile, a year later, in 1973, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 1193 designating October 21 as Tenants' Emancipation Day.
From 1972 to 2016, more than 4.7 million hectares have been distributed to 2.8 million farmer beneficiaries. The scope of the original Tenant Emancipation Act, however, was limited only to an effective area totalling some 1.4 million hectares, compared to the later target under the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) of over 5.4 million hectares. With Republic Act No. 6657, also known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988, the crop limitation to rice and corn was repealed, allowing farmers who also cultivate other types of crops to be landed as well.
22nd October
On October 22, 1905, Datu Ali was killed with around 20 of his men by American forces along the Malala River in the vicinity of Buluan, Maguindanao. Ali, who scored the only American death reported by that mission, was said to have been slain by 15 bullets. The surviving Moro troops were captured.
The 70-strong American contingent led by Captain (later General) Frank Ross McCoy journeyed from Digos to track down the elusive Ali, then regarded as one of the last Moro leaders to resist the United States. They were accompanied by 150 locals under the command of Datu Enok, believed to be an enemy of Ali. Enok served as the Americans' guide and interpreter for the said expedition.
Upon seeing Ali's death, Enok supposedly announced, "Datu Ali muerte!" The Americans reported some 500 rifles surrendered by Moros after learning about the passing of Datu Ali.
Lieutenant Philip Remington, credited to be the soldier who first shot Datu Ali, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his action.
Such was the threat of Datu Ali that nearly a year after his demise, in May 1906, there were reports that the body buried by McCoy was a double and that Ali was actually alive, enlisting the erstwhile foe Datu Enok as his ally in a new "rebellion." This was, of course, another story.
Datu Ali, a veteran of the 1886 Spanish campaign against Mindanao by Governor General Emilio Terrero, was a cousin of the powerful Datu Utto Anwaruddin, who the Spaniards dubbed as the "Second Kudarat." Utto's defeat and acceptance of peace reduced his influence in the Maguindanao sultanate, which had no sultan from 1888 to 1896.
As he retired, the aging Utto designated Ali as his successor by 1899, assuming the title Rajah of Buayan in addition to his existing role as Rajah of Tinunkup. At one time, Datu Ali commanded some 2,000 troops and possessed 80 cannons of different calibers.
Ali, however, was not without rivals. One of them was the Chinese Datu Piang Tan of Cotabato, who once served as a minister of Datu Utto. Breaking up from his former lord in 1893, Piang tried to declare himself as "Sultan of Mindanao," but was overshadowed by Ali's emergence. It was said Piang was one of the local informants who prompted the 1905 American expedition against Ali, then alleged to have been suffering from malaria. Piang would continue to live on until 1933, being integrated in the American political system and was believed to have accumulated massive wealth due to his various economic activities.
Meanwhile, Utto's death in 1902 only added to Ali's boldness, who managed to survive the worst of General Leonard Wood's campaigns in Mindanao, the first American governor in the newly established Moro Province. There were rumors that Ali wore a "special shirt", a belief reinforced by Piang as well, which made the wearer immune from bullets. The Americans said he wore no such thing in his final battle.
23rd October
On October 23, 1944, the Battle of Leyte Gulf was engaged between American and Japanese navies. Involving some 400 ships and 200,000 soldiers, it was arguably one of the largest naval battles in history, but action was not confined to Leyte waters alone. There were separate and coordinated engagements off Samar, Surigao, Palawan, Sibuyan Sea, and Cape Engaño. The Imperial Japanese Navy, divided into three main forces, implemented one of the variants of their Operation Victory (捷1号作戦) in hopes of dealing what their leaders hoped would be the decisive battle ending the war. Unlike Pearl Harbor nearly three years earlier, wherein keeping the fleet intact became a priority, Japanese plans focused on retaining the Philippines at all costs. They were, of course, at a numerical and technological disadvantage, but hoped that land-based systems could balance the battle.
The battle also saw the first organized "kamikaze" or suicide bomber attacks, conducted by the Special Attack Force (特別攻撃隊), in attempts to increase American losses. The battle ended three days later, with the United States losing seven (7) ships, including the escort carrier St. Lo, which first saw the kamikaze attack in action. This compared to Japan losing 26 of their ships, including one of the world's largest battleships, the Musashi, and the last of the aircraft carriers which attacked Pearl Harbor, the Zuikaku.
Had the battle gone in favor of the Japanese, even in a moderate fashion, the land campaign in Leyte might have faced more difficulties moving forward.
23rd October
On October 23, 1857, Filipino painter Juan Luna was born in Ilocos Norte. Although his passion was with art, Luna entered the Escuela Nautica de Manila (later Philippine Merchant Marine Academy - PMMAOfficial) before studying at the Academia de Dibujo y Pintura. He eventually went to Spain in 1877 and enrolled in Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, where he met the Spanish painter Alejo Vera, one of his mentors and inspirations.
One of Luna's first major recognitions overseas was for his La Muerte de Cleopatra (The Death of Cleopatra), which won second prize in the 1881 National Exposition at Madrid. This would begin a series of award-winning creations from his artistic genius, including the Spoliarium (1884 Madrid), the Battle of Lepanto (1888 Barcelona), the Parisian Life, and El Pueblo y Los Reyes (1904 St. Louis).
Luna's personal life, however, became a source of controversy. Charges were filed against him in 1892 for allegedly killing his wife and in-law. While acquitted of his "crime of passion", Luna would return to the Philippines by 1894. A rayadillo design of Filipino military uniforms was attributed to Luna. He died in Hong Kong on December 7, 1899, his final days dedicated to being a diplomat for the First Republic.
23rd October
On October 23, 1417, Paduka Batara (Patuko Patala, Paduka Pahala) of Sulu died in Ming China while on a diplomatic mission. The Yongle Emperor, who saw him as a "brother to the empire", gave Paduka Batara a memorial:
"Now then, the King, brilliant and sagacious, gentle and honest, especially outstanding and naturally talented, as a sincere act of true respect for the Way of Heaven, did not shrink from a voyage of many tens of thousands of miles to lead his familial household in person, together with his tribute officers and fellow countrymen, to cross the sea routes in a spirit of loyal obedience."
To this day, his tomb was regarded as the only resting place of a foreign ruler being continuously maintained in Mainland China.
24th October
On October 24, 1945, the United Nations was founded with 51 original members, including the Commonwealth of the Philippines. While the Philippines is quite recognizable in the current UN logo, it was no larger than a dot in the original prototype of the emblem. In the discussions leading to this creation, when it seemed the Philippines was about to be excluded in the design for being "too small", future UN General Assembly President Carlos P. Romulo insisted on the inclusion of the Philippines in iconic fashion: "I want that dot!"
The Philippines was also one of the signatories of the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, a document which became the basis for the said organization.
24th October
On October 24, 1853, Filipino philologist and lexicographer Pedro Serrano Laktaw was born in Bulacan. Known for his landmark work Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (Spanish-Tagalog Dictionary), published in 1889 and 1914, Laktaw obtained his maestro superior at Salamanca and his maestro normal at Madrid. Laktaw had the distinction of being a tutor of Alfonso XIII, who became King of Spain upon his birth (his mother Maria Christina of Austria served as regent). During his time overseas, Laktaw was an active part of the Reform Movement, being helpful with the written works of fellow Filipinos such as Isabelo de los Reyes and Marcelo H. Del Pilar.
When he returned to the Philippines, Laktaw served as a teacher and helped in building the Masonry in the archipelago (his codename was Panday Pira) until his arrest due to suspicions of being an agent of Revolution. He would eventually be released during the administration of Governor General Ramon Blanco, later taking part in the consultative assembly organized in May 1898 by Blanco's successor Basilio Augustin in hopes of unifying Filipino energies against the United States. Laktaw would continue his nationalistic work during the American period. In 1918, the Supreme Court recognized Laktaw's intellectual property rights for his dictionary. He died on September 22, 1928.
25th October
On October 25, 1593, an Intramuros guard was "transported" from Manila to Mexico City while sleeping on duty, literally travelling thousands of kilometers across the vast Pacific Ocean overnight. Later identified as Gil Perez, the so-called "transported soldier" became the first documented case of "teleportation" in history.
Since his uniform was supposedly different from the Spanish soldiers in Mexico, he was highly suspected and thrown into jail as a lunatic. He was eventually freed when his story of guarding Intramuros was corroborated by passengers of a galleon from the Philippines, who happened to be acquainted with Perez. He was later reinstated to his post in Manila, perhaps glad of his relief.
One tricky part in Perez's narrative was the death of Spanish Governor General Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, who was killed in a mutiny by Chinese laborers while en route to an expedition. Perez's claim to have known Dasmariñas's death even before the news came to Mexico was regarded as proof of his "teleportation." Then again, the date of Dasmariñas's passing was subject to debate to this day, with at least three dates offered, namely October 19, 23, and 25 of that year. If Dasmariñas died on the 25th, it would have been difficult to believe that Perez knew about it prior to his so-called teleportation that night.
Meanwhile, those familiar with the galleon trade might have an idea that galleons usually depart from the Philippines prior to the typhoon season, i.e., around June. The first galleon, therefore, that would have arrived while Perez was still imprisoned might have not been aware of Dasmariñas's demise in October. In fact, the Spanish government would not name a new Governor General until 1595 in the person of Francisco de Tello de Guzman, with Dasmariñas's immediate successors Pedro de Rojas and his son Luis Perez Dasmariñas being interim governors before de Guzman's arrival and eventual assumption of office in 1596.
Through the years, the story of the transported soldier morphed, and the name Gil Perez might be a convenient addition as well to the already fantastic tale.
25th October
On October 25, 2001, operating system Windows XP was released to the general public to succeed Windows 2000. Although Microsoft ended support for XP by 2014, reportedly over 15 percent of Filipinos still used Windows XP in 2015 despite the release of four newer OS versions namely Windows Vista, 7, 8, and 10.
26th October
On October 26, 1901, General Troadio Galicano surrendered to the United States in Barili, Cebu with 115 troops and 10 rifles (one of which was the Japanese Murata rifle). Entering the seminary to pursue priesthood, his studies would be interrupted by the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution. Starting as an officer under General Arcadio Maxilom, Galicano would eventually be promoted as general as well, setting camp in his hometown Carcar.
During the American period, he would finish law in 1906 and become elected as Cebu representative the next year. He would later serve as senator of the Philippines, being elected to the post in 1925.
26th October
On October 26, 1909, Korean nationalist An Jung-geun (안중근) assassinated Japanese Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi (伊藤博文) at the Harbin Railway Station. Firing six shots, three of them fatally hit Itō, while injuring three other Japanese officials, namely Kawagami Toshihiko, Morita Jirō, and Tanaka Seitarō.
After accomplishing this deed, he supposedly yelled in Russian "Корея! Ура!" (Korea! Hooray!) and waved the Korean flag before being arrested by Russians, only to be turned over later to the Japanese colonial government.
In 1905, Korea became a Japanese protectorate after Japan won its war against the Russian Empire. Itō, while initially opposed to Korean annexation, eventually agreed to the prospect, but subsequently resigned his post as Resident-General of Japan in Korea.
As for An, born in 1879 and was a baptized Roman Catholic taking the name Thomas An, he proclaimed himself as a "lieutenant general" of the Korean Resistance Army (의병) and issued fifteen (15) reasons why Itō must die. Ironically, both An and Itō held Pan-Asianism views, although the two apparently differed in their approaches. On March 26, 1910, after enduring trial, An was executed in Lüshunkou (Ryojun) as a criminal and a terrorist.
While Koreans regarded An as a national hero, not all Japanese condemned his actions. For one, Japanese socialists and anarchists such as Kōtoku Denjirō (幸徳傳次郎) praised An as "gijin" or righteous. To this day, however, the legacy of An's assassination continued to influence modern politics in the region.
In 2014, the People's Republic of China built a memorial for An in Harbin, site of his deadly act, only to earn Japan's protest. The memorial would be reopened in 2019 after being moved to a Korean arts center. Seoul also housed a memorial for An at Mount Namsan, previously the site of Chōsen Shrine (조선신궁), the most important Shinto shrine built during Japanese colonial administration of Korea.
27th October
On October 27, 1901, Generals Arcadio Maxilom and Juan Climaco surrendered to the United States with 40 troops, 30 rifles, and eight cannons in Tuburan, Cebu. On the same day, General Mateo Luga surrendered as well in Carcar with 38 of his troops. This date marked the end of organized Filipino resistance to the Americans in Cebu, seven months after the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo and one month after the Battle of Balangiga in Samar.
Maxilom, who was a teacher prior to serving as capitan municipal of Tuburan, was integrated to the Katipunan by Pantaleon Villegas, also known as Leon Kilat. After Kilat's death, Maxilom carried on the Philippine Revolution in Cebu and led the liberation of Cebu by Christmas of 1898. Under his leadership, codes used by Cebuano revolutionaries differed from those used by the republican government centered in Malolos. Even as the Americans arrived in Cebu two months later, Maxilom and his troops fought to maintain their freedom.
Months after his surrender, in 1902, Maxilom was arrested by American authorities in suspicion of plotting another rebellion, only to be released by 1903. When he died in 1924, it was said his funeral march stretched four kilometers long, with Aguinaldo himself attending the occasion. General Maxilom Avenue in Cebu City was named in his honor.
Climaco, who was gobernadorcillo of Toledo, was appointed chief of staff by Maxilom before eventually being promoted as general himself. After the war, Climaco would become Cebu's first elected governor under American rule in 1902. Later, he would be part of the Filipino delegation to the 1904 St. Louis Exposition. Climaco fell ill en route, and died in 1907. His appointee as acting governor, Sergio Osmeña, Sr., succeeded him. Barangay General Juan Climaco in Toledo was named in his honor.
Luga, an Ibanag born in Ilocos and settled in Isabela, was a veteran of the early battles of the Philippine Revolution in Antipolo and Montalban (now Rodriguez), among others, before proceeding to Cebu as a military adviser, wherein he further cemented his legacy as a revolutionary general. He was regarded as the only major non-Visayan leader who fought in Cebu during the Revolution. After the war, he served in the Philippine Constabulary until his resignation in 1914. He died in 1935, unable to return to Isabela. The General Mateo Luga Award was named in his honor.
29th October
On October 29, 1866, General Antonio Luna was born in Manila. While hailed for his contributions in leading the military, there were also valid criticisms on Luna never winning a battle during the Philippine-American War.
A scientist by profession, one of his major works include a study on malaria, a disease that remains endemic in parts of the Philippines to this day. Luna was able to complete his doctorate, one of the first Filipinos to do so abroad. As part of the Reform Movement, he wrote for La Solidaridad with the pseudonym Taga-Ilog. His interest in fighting and military tactics was also notable.
While he did not join the first phase of the Philippine Revolution, he would eventually be an active part of the second phase by 1898. His non-participation in 1896, however, earned him critics among those who had been with the Revolution from the start, especially as Luna quickly rose to a Cabinet position (Assistant Secretary of War) within the two months he returned to the Philippines. It was no secret in these circles how Luna once denounced the Katipunan and its members, i.e., "nagturo."
His political views also ran counter against those harbored by some government officials in the nascent republic, particularly those who believed in American goodwill. Prior to his death, Luna even publicized through the newspaper La Independencia his intent to form a new Cabinet with himself at its head. Then again, he was not wrong to suspect the intentions of the Americans early on.
His immediate response to meet with President Emilio Aguinaldo as soon as he received the message to come to Cabanatuan in June 1899, so much so that he left his larger escort to arrive as early as possible, suggested that he might have seen the prospect of a development going to his favor in the Filipino government. Despite their personal opinions of each other, Aguinaldo and Luna appeared to be in agreeable terms, at least for the most part, when it came to professional matters.
While Luna's death was not officially publicized until June 8, the Aguinaldo government took actions to respond to the loss of the general and to dispel potential rumors that Luna himself had taken over the Filipino republic. On June 6, telegrams were sent to all military heads in the provinces that the President would assume active direction of the armed forces, a position Aguinaldo had earlier assumed when Luna resigned on February 28, 1899. He would ask to be reinstated a month later, in March 1899. It was also by this time Luna had made his last will and testament (March 31). Luna's loss, coming a month after the fall of Apolinario Mabini as Prime Minister, was nonetheless seen as the weakening of the more radical proponents of independence.
30th October
On October 30, 2014, Senator Juan Flavier died. After earning his medicine degree at the University of the Philippines and his master's degree in public health at Johns Hopkins University, the Manila-born doctor chose to serve in rural areas. He was also president of the Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement and the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Meanwhile, Flavier was one of the co-presenters of the long-standing public service show Kapwa Ko Mahal Ko from 1975 to 1992.
In 1992, he was appointed as Health Secretary, a position he would serve for the next three years. One of his landmark projects was the institutionalization of "Doctor to the Barrios" in 1993, also the title of his 1970 book, which empowered doctors to serve in rural communities. It was also in 1993 when the last case of wild polio virus was reported in the Philippines until the outbreak in 2019.
Other iconic programs during his service include Yosi Kadiri, Oplan Sagip Mata, Pusong Pinoy, and the popularization of iodized salt. His term would be cut short by his campaign and election to the Senate in 1995.
At one time, he was regarded as the "poorest" senator. During this tenure, he authored and sponsored various legislation such as the Philippine Nursing Act (RA 9173), Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act (RA 9165), National Service Training Program Act (RA 9163), and Anti-Money Laundering Act (RA 9160).
31st October
On October 31, 1517, German professor and monk Martin Luther sent his 95 Theses to the Archbishop of Mainz, perhaps with copies publicly posted as well in accordance to the customs of the University of Wittenberg. While Luther himself was adamant in using public channels to express his protest, printed copies of the Theses in Latin and later German found its way to many, so much so that Luther had to defend his beliefs at the 1519 Leipzig Debate and the 1521 Diet of Worms, among others. In a popular quote attributed to him, it was apparent Luther would eventually regard the printing press as "the ultimate gift of God."
This was considered as the formal beginning of the Protestant Reformation, but Luther was not the first to call for reform of the Christian Church and suffered for his faith. Peter Waldo of Lyon rejected the purgatory, praying for the dead, and indulgences three centuries before Luther. English professor and priest John Wycliffe upheld the Bible as the only authority (sola scriptura) on God and worked towards the translation of the Bible in the vernacular more than a century before Luther made his translation in German. Czech priest Jan Hus preached against papal authority, and boldly declared upon facing his death: "You may roast the goose, but a hundred years from now a swan will arise whose singing you will not be able to silence." Hus was executed in 1415, a century before Luther sent his Theses.
While there was no universal conclusion on how the Reformation affected the world five centuries hence, there were beliefs that it influenced the formation of the modern nation-state, the separation of church and state, and a pattern in economic development which Max Weber would call "Protestant ethic."
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In October 1603, the Sangley Rebellion broke out in the Philippines, causing thousands of Chinese deaths. Earlier, it was reported in 1602 that three mandarins (scholar-officials) with a retinue of around a hundred companions arrived in Manila supposedly to verify the existence of a "mountain of gold" which was called Chia-i-shan (機易山). It was estimated to be able to produce some 10,000 taels of gold (around 400 kilograms) and 30,000 taels of silver (around 1,200 kilograms) a year.
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| Depiction of Sangleys Photo courtesy of Wikipedia |
The mandarins were identified as Wang Shih-ho (王時和), Deputy Magistrate of Hai-teng (Fujian), Kan I-cheng (干一成), and Chang-I (張嶷). In their understanding, the territory was not yet owned, giving them the liberty to explore there. This place was later interpreted as the mountains of Cavite, which was geographically near Manila, but was definitely not an island separated from Luzon.
When the mandarins left after gathering earth samples, suspicion of the Chinese did not decrease. It was only a decade ago, in 1593, when Chinese mutineers took the life of the previous Spanish Governor General, Gomez Perez Dasmariñas. The arrival of the mandarins seemed to be a prelude to a Chinese invasion. The paranoia was fueled by market forces. Rumors of increased military activity and alleged new regulations raised the iron prices, with the Chinese in the Philippines taking advantage of the profitable situation by selling everything they got. In response, the Spanish colonial government, under Governor General Pedro Bravo de Acuña, rounded up the overpricing merchants and had them killed.
What came after was confusion. In one account, a Tagalog woman was said to have bared to the Church a plot she learned from her Chinese husband. That is, a rebellion would begin on October 4, the feast day of Francis of Assisi. Thereafter, some 4,000 Chinese have reportedly set fire the house of Captain Esteban de Marquina and killed his entire household. Thus, allied with the local population and the Japanese, the Spanish fought against the Chinese for 18 days to defeat the rebellion.
In another account, it was the Spanish response to the Chinese profiteers and the destruction of their gardens which triggered a Chinese exodus from the Binondo settlement (built in 1594) to a place they called Lun-shan (崙山), which was interpreted by some as nearby Tondo. They put up palisade walls and sought to keep the Spanish out. At first, it seemed the Spanish meant to keep the peace by sending an envoy to negotiate. The Chinese, unable to trust the Spanish, killed the envoy. This prompted the Spanish to starve the Chinese by establishing their forces around the area. After three days, the Chinese broke out of their encampment out of desperation, falling into the trap of the Spanish. In both accounts, the death toll mounted to around 25,000.
Acuña, while proud of his military achievement, did not dare to elaborate in his report to the Spanish King the reasons behind the rebellion. On the other side of the sea, the Wanli Emperor was said to have punished Chang-I in 1604 for giving the court false hopes and allegedly starting the rebellion that broke out in Manila. The estimated death toll from the fighting that reached the imperial court was 20,000.
Despite calls to limit the Chinese population, especially from the Church, the Spanish colonial government believed it better to regulate their trade and earn in the process. Some 6,000 Chinese had settled by 1605. Acuña also reasoned to the Spanish Crown that the Chinese were not technically vassals to the King, and the rebellion was not the will of many of the Chinese, citing that provoking them as Dasmariñas did might cause trouble.
The name they attributed to them by the Spanish and the namesake of the rebellion, Sangley, had different possible origins. One of them would be sang-lei (shengli, 生理), which meant business, work, or livelihood. Another would be soeng-leoi (shanglu, 商旅) or travelling merchant. Yet another potential source would be siong-lai-lang (changlai, 常來) or frequent visitor. Sangley Point in Cavite was believed to have been named after this term.
October
From June to October 1887, the Philippine Exposition was held at Parque del Buen Retiro in Madrid with eight sections. Perhaps taking example from the 1883 International Colonial and Export Exhibition in the Netherlands, the Spanish government envisioned to demonstrate its own status as a world power and the progress it had introduced to their colonies even as the nation had faced internal conflict (e.g., the Carlist Wars) and troubles overseas (e.g., Ten Years' War in Cuba).
The Philippines, while portrayed as rich in cultural prowess and a viable place for investment forging through the path of development, was also shown as a backwater of a colony with limited capacity on "science, education, and the Spanish language", among other fields. This earned the ire of Filipinos, particularly those living in Spain itself, who appeared to have not been consulted in organizing the exposition. They argued that the 30 Filipinos chosen for the exposition, including those from the Pacific territories such as the Marianas and the Carolinas, were not an accurate representation of the entire colony, raising the propensity for discrimination.
Jose Rizal would write of it as not being a Philippine Exposition at all but "an Exposition of Igorots" while Graciano Lopez Jaena saw it as an attempt to "demonstrate the Filipino infantile condition." Filipinos, however, were not alone in their dismal review of the exposition.
Some in the Spanish media also noticed how the Philippines was put in negative light without taking into consideration that it was Spain governing the islands in the first place. For instance, while Filipinos have an aptitude to be multilingual people, it was observed that some Filipinos participating in the exposition were not fluent in the Spanish language.
1st October
Every October 1 has been regarded as International #CoffeeDay. While this commemoration began only in 2015, some nations have earlier designated their own days to appreciate the well-loved beverage. Japan, for one, was one of them when the All Japan Coffee Association (全日本コーヒー協会) launched their event during the 1980s.
As for Filipinos, while reported to consume some 3 kilograms of coffee a year, they did not always cultivate coffee in the country. It was believed that the Spanish brought coffee to the Philippines, initially planted in Batangas, around the year 1740. Locally called "kape," it has since developed into a cash crop for the former Spanish colony, with coffee exports reaching as far as the United States. When global production plummeted due to the prevalence of "coffee rust" (Hemileia vastatrix) from 1887 to 1889, the Philippines took the role as the world's leading coffee exporter.
Value share of coffee in agricultural exports today, however, had been insignificant. From 2015 to 2019, coffee's share to the total ranged from 0.001 to 0.002 percent.
2nd October
Every October 2 has been observed as the International Day of #NonViolence since 2007, the date inspired by the #birthday of Indian nationalist and rights advocate Mahatma Gandhi. Yet even before Gandhi, born on this day in 1869, and his peaceful campaign for Indian independence from British rule would be the Philippines and its Reform Movement. Prominent Filipinos such as Jose Rizal, Marcelo H. Del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Isabelo de los Reyes, Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, and Jose Maria Panganiban have advocated through various means the betterment of what was then a Spanish colony.
3rd October
On October 3, 1895, Dr. Candido M. Africa was born in Batangas. Known for his research on parasitology, his studies brought him to various institutions such as the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Johns Hopkins University, and Institut für Tropenmedizin in Germany. Africa was involved in the Council of Scientists. He died in 1945.
4th October
On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Sputnik 1 (Спутник-1) became the first man-made satellite to orbit the Earth. Launched from the iconic R-7 Semyorka rocket, developed by the OKB-1 under Chief Designer Sergei Korolev from the German V-2, Sputnik reached as high as 939 kilometers. Intended for a 22-day mission, powered by its own battery, and stripped of much scientific equipment in a rush to beat the United States to outer space, the artificial satellite would remain in orbit until January 4, 1958, four months later.
As for the R-7, while eventually phased out from Soviet military use as a ballistic missile in favor of other variants such as the R-11 Zemlya (NATO designation Scud-A) and R-17 Elbrus (NATO designation Scud-B), the R-7 would continue to be utilized in some 1,800 launches to space, making R-7 and its derivatives as one of the most used rocket families in the world.
Sputnik opened the so-called Space Age and allowed humanity to set their sights to the "new frontier." Nearly six decades after Sputnik, the Philippines would have its own microsatellite launched into orbit with Diwata-1 in 2016. The rocket used would be the American Atlas V. Filipino designers also developed the Maya nanosatellites following that of Diwata.
On March 23, 2016, the Philippines launched its first artificial satellite, the 50-kg Diwata-1, also known as PHL-Microsat-1. The success of the Diwata series, which boosted Filipino surveillance and imagery capacities, set the stage for the establishment of the Philippine Space Agency on August 8, 2019. While it remains to be seen how a space agency with no launching capability (Diwata was launched at the United States), space engineer institutions (Diwata's manufacturing was done in cooperation with Japan), nor astronaut training facilities can keep the space program going, but as Filipinos begin to have an increasing role beyond the skies, perhaps we can hope to see more historic milestones in space exploration in the near future.
5th October
On October 5, 2015, Senator Ceferino "Joker" Arroyo died in the Unites States. He was 88. Seen as a "gadfly" of every Filipino president, the Naga-born lawyer began practicing in 1953, for the most part having no real political stances. In his view, rights advocates were beholden more by conscience than politics.
In 1973, he became one of the lawyers involved in Javellana vs. Executive Secretary, et al., also known as the Ratification Cases, which decided on the legality of the 1973 Constitution. The Supreme Court eventually upheld the new constitution as effective and valid, dismissing the petitions which argued against the legitimacy of the ratification.
Standing up for human rights and representing cases on rights abuses during the Marcos administration, Arroyo himself would be imprisoned for three months in 1978. His experience in jail, while he saw as relatively kind and gentle, was also a source of dismay since he was aware of the conditions which less privileged prisoners were undergoing. Then again, Arroyo on his part also attempted to be objective in observing that Martial Law under Marcos might have not been as repressive as authoritarian regimes elsewhere.
During the administration of Corazon Aquino, he was appointed Executive Secretary. During his stint from 1986 to 1987, he earned the suspicion of being friendly with Communists, leading to his removal from office. In 1992, he would serve as Makati representative, his career in the Lower House culminating with the role as Lead Prosecutor of the impeachment trial of Former President Joseph Estrada.
In 2001, he was elected to the Senate with 11.2 million votes, a position which he would be reelected in 2007. As senator, he refused to receive any Priority Development Assistance Fund (PDAF), even revealing that a significant amount was allocated to his fellow senators during the impeachment trial of Chief Justice Renato Corona in 2011. He was one of the senators who voted "not guilty" for Corona, the others being Miriam Defensor Santiago and Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos, Jr.
One of his final pieces of legislation would be the Human Rights Victims' Reparation and Recognition Act (Republic Act No. 10368), signed in February 2013. This aimed to recognize the sacrifices of all Filipinos who were victims of human rights violations committed during the Marcos regime, specifically from the years 1972 to 1986, providing for monetary and non-monetary reparations for them or their legal heirs.
6th October
On October 6, 1762, British forces successfully occupied Manila, the Spanish colonial capital in the Philippines, after two weeks of fighting. Led by Colonel (later General) William Draper and Vice Admiral Samuel Cornish, the initial landing force consisting of the 1,000-strong 79th Regiment faced a similarly sized Spanish contingent supported by some 10,000 Filipino troops. Inclement weather did not help the British offensive as strong winds kept their 14-ship fleet from significantly assisting the expedition.
When the weather permitted, the British fleet landed 1,000 more troops, this time from the ranks of their sailors, along with artillery pieces which allowed bombardment of the city. The Spanish, as they attempted to break out of the city, was repelled back to Manila by the British. On October 4/5, a Filipino force composed of 1,000 Kapampangans conducted a ferocious charge against the British encampment. However, being ill-equipped and badly led, the Filipinos suffered around 70 casualties before being driven out, but not without inflicting 40 casualties on the British. Some observers felt in retrospect that if the courageous Filipinos had better weapons and strategy, they might have been in a more favorable position in fighting the battle.
After this failed counterattack, the British resumed their offensive, finding the city abandoned by most of its population and only a little over 1,000 remaining for the eventual surrender of Spanish Governor General and Archbishop Manuel Rojo del Rio. Despite this formal capitulation, most of the Philippines still remained resistant to the British, with Simon de Anda establishing a provisional government in Bacolor, Pampanga. Then again, there were also Filipinos receptive to the British rule, such as Diego Silang who the British granted the governorship of Ilocos.
7th October
On October 7, 1951, Manila gang leader Nicasio "Asiong" Salonga was killed by close range fire in Tondo a few days before his 27th birthday, the perpetrator believed to be a certain Ernesto Reyes, member of a rival gang.
The son of a police officer, Salonga was imprisoned in Bilibid in May 1944. He escaped when he was about to be transferred to Camp Nichols in Pasay in the same year, only to be arrested again in 1946 in order to complete his full sentence of six months and one day.
Salonga gained notoriety in the postwar period as "Tondo's kingpin", assembling a gang of 12 key members to disrupt and dominate Manila's mobs. Despite his life of crime and defiance to the law, he was regarded as a folk hero as well, being compared by some to Robin Hood as he lavished the poor with his mobster wealth.
Politics also loomed large in the elusive Salonga's career. He was a loyal supporter of the Liberal Party since its formation in 1946. Thus, when the gangster met his demise five years later, a political aspect was also explored at the time since he shifted his support to the Nacionalista Party shortly before being killed.
Salonga was portrayed multiple times in popular culture, among them being Joseph Ejercito Estrada's 1961 film "Asiong Salonga" and Rudy Fernandez's 1978 film "Salonga."
7th October
On October 7, 1571, the Battle of Lepanto in the Ionian Sea saw the naval victory of the Christian Holy League over the Ottoman Empire. The Holy League, led by Don Juan of Austria, half-brother of Spanish King Philip II, assembled over 200 galleys from the Spanish Empire and the Italian states to face a larger Turkish fleet under Admirals Ali Pasha and Mehmed Sirocco. In commemoration of this, Pope Pius V instituted the Feast of Our Lady of the Rosary, also known as Our Lady of Victory.
Since the expansion of the Ottoman Empire in 1453, when Sultan Mehmed II conquered the Byzantine capital of Constantinople, it was believed the Muslim Turks were virtually unbeatable in battle. Lepanto's outcome raised not only Christian morale, but also became a decisive factor in dividing the Mediterranean between the two factions in the long term.
Religious attributions on the triumph aside, the League's victory was also owed to the technological superiority of the Europeans, who used better guns and artillery. Lepanto marked the end of rowed galleys as a military centerpiece, further demonstrated in the English and the Spanish Armada in 1588.
Lepanto, however, did not break the Ottoman drive as Muslim expansion in North Africa and Eastern Europe continued in the next two decades. The Holy League, meanwhile, did not last. The Christian coalition would be effectively disbanded by 1573, failing to coordinate their efforts in checking renewed Ottoman activity. It only took six months for the Turkish fleet to be restored to 1571 levels.
In 1887, one of the notable portrayals of the Battle of Lepanto was by Filipino painter Juan Luna, an artwork commissioned by the Spanish government and unveiled in the Palacio del Senado in Madrid. This earned Luna a medal in the 1888 Barcelona Universal Exposition.
8th October
On October 8, 1967, Argentine physician and revolutionary Ernesto "Che" Guevara was captured by Bolivian forces. He was believed to have been executed a day later, the Bolivian government anticipating that his continued existence might exacerbate the Communist insurgency. Guevara, on his part, thought it would be more beneficial for his captors to keep him alive, a view they did not share.
A leader of the Cuban Revolution that overthrew the military rule of Colonel Fulgencio Batista in 1959, Guevara was largely influenced by the works of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in his theories on "Third World" exploitation, the effects of colonialism, and the global proletarian revolution. Believing that liberation was not merely a national phenomenon, he expounded on these ideas in trips that covered five continents, including the United States. In 1964, he addressed the United Nations General Assembly on "peaceful coexistence" between nations of different politico-economic systems, regardless of historical or present relations.
Guevara's iconic image, taken in 1960, had taken a different path from his revolutionary life. From fashion to art, from films to sports, the photograph which had become known as "Guerrillero Heroico" had become a nearly omnipresent motif even in the Philippines, although the Argentinian probably never visited the country, nor do many Filipinos realize his Communist background. This was seen as a type of "Rashomon effect" which indicated a deviation from the original meaning of what was witnessed.
8th October
On October 8, 1954, the Philippines and the Federal Republic of Germany (West Germany) opened formal diplomatic relations. Thereafter, a legation was established in Bonn, which would be promoted to an embassy in 1962. Meanwhile, relations with the German Democratic Republic (East Germany) would begin on September 22, 1973, with an embassy opening in East Berlin. The Bonn embassy would remain until 1999, when German reunification eventually moved it to Berlin.
Germans, however, have been visiting the Philippines even before the Second World War. For instance, the German Club in Manila emerged in the 19th century. A German squadron visited Sulu in 1878, while another German squadron arrived in Manila Bay during the Spanish-American War in 1898. It was also Germany which acquired the Pacific possessions of Spain besides the Philippines a year later, in 1899, including the Marianas.
9th October
On October 9, 1446, the Hunmingjeongeum (훈민정음) was published to introduce the Korean script which would become known as Hangul/Hangeul (한글). The date would later be the foundation of commemorating Korean Alphabet Day or Choson-gul Day (조선글날).
In 1443, King Sejong the Great initiated the creation of Hangul to promote literacy, especially among the less educated. Prior to this, Koreans mostly used the Chinese script. There was a time Hangul was not well received, however, despite its initial propagation. In 1504, King Yeonsangun banned the script and closed Sungkyunkwan for conversion as a pleasure place. In their protests, discontented Koreans used Hangul in their posters.
In recent years, Hangul gained popularity in the Philippines. Korean, among other foreign languages, was included as an elective subject by the Department of Education DepEd Tayo in 2017. Koreatowns have also emerged in places like Manila and Angeles, Pampanga.
9th October
On October 9, 1871, General Tomas Mascardo was born in Cavite. A school teacher prior to the Philippine Revolution, he would first see action in Tanauan, Batangas, resulting to a Filipino victory. Mascardo also fought in Zapote Bridge in February 1897, which witnessed the death of General Edilberto Evangelista, while Mascardo himself was wounded in battle. He would eventually be commanding general during the Filipino-American War, which position would bring him in conflict with General Antonio Luna, who was Chief of Operations in Central Luzon.
In the lead-up to the Battle of Calumpit, also known as the Battle of Bagbag River, in April 1899, Luna wanted Mascardo's troops to reinforce the lines in anticipation of the American offensive. Mascardo, however, did not only refuse to comply, he moved from Guagua to Arayat, 30 kilometers further north. The Caviteño general believed Luna had a personal score to settle with him, and apparently wanted to avoid as much as possible being involved with Luna's affairs. Then again, as the theater of war moved from Bulacan to Mascardo's area in Pampanga, it seemed inevitable for the two to clash.
In an attempt to diffuse the situation, President Emilio Aguinaldo decided to imprison Mascardo for 24 hours, but the resolution came too late. The battle was already lost even as Luna rushed to return, his decision to remove essential troops from the frontline in order to deal with Mascardo presumably dooming the Filipino defense. Three Americans received the Medal of Honor for the victory in Calumpit.
Mascardo surrendered on May 15, 1901, after sending Manuel Quezon to verify the capture of Aguinaldo a few months earlier. After the war, he would serve as governor of Cavite from 1910 to 1912. He died on July 7, 1932.
10th October
On October 10, 1911, the Xinhai Geming (辛亥革命) or Double Ten Revolution erupted in Qing China, the four-month struggle resulting to the formation of the Republic of China with Dr. Sun Yat-sen as first Provisional President. This also ended the millennia-long imperial system.
General Yuan Shikai, who for the past two years had been relieved of all government positions, was requested by the Qing court to return as Prime Minister of the Imperial Cabinet, which he did by November 1911. Instead of defending the Qing, he replaced many court positions with Han Chinese and negotiated with the revolutionaries. Despite popular unrest, the Sun-led republic was in a precarious situation. By agreeing to Yuan's proposition to grant him the presidency, Sun's counteroffer was to move the capital of the new nation south to Nanjing, which would have removed Yuan from his center of power in the north. It did not prevail.
For the next few years, Yuan seemed to be adapting to the new system, conducting elections for the National Assembly. However, by 1915 Yuan crowned himself as the Hongxian Emperor, a title he abandoned after 83 days. While modernization and restoration of national stability was at the forefront of the Yuan administration, it did not appear to proceed in the direction envisioned by the revolutionaries of 1911. Yuan's death in 1916 triggered the eventual breakup of China, with Sun and his successor Chiang Kai-shek having to fight for every province in the next decade. This was also the setting with which the first National Congress of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) would be convened in 1921.
Sun had been scheming the transition of China to a republic long before the Xinhai Revolution. In 1895, the foiled Guangzhou Uprising forced Sun and his associates to move to Japan, where they would meet, among others, Filipino revolutionaries who were fighting for independence. Believing in the principles espoused by the Filipinos and seeing the benefits of having the Philippines as an ally, Sun helped Mariano Ponce acquire arms, including Murata rifles used in the First Sino-Japanese War. Filipino works were also translated into Chinese. For one, Jose Rizal's Mi Ultimo Adios had 21 Chinese translations.
10th October
On October 10, 1915, Francisco "Kiko" Trinidad was born in Manila. Regarded as the "Father of Philippine Radio" and the "Dean of Filipino Broadcasters", he worked as an announcer and program arranger with FEBC (Far East Broadcasting Company), a Christian radio network which first aired in the Philippines through 680 AM KZAS (later 702 AM DZAS). He also entered government service, becoming general manager of the Philippine Broadcasting Service (PBS), which acquired the wartime radio station KZSO (later DZFM, now 738 AM DZRB) and transformed it into the state radio network. Pioneering distance learning through radio, legislative hearings and cultural exchanges were also aired in the spirit of educating the public via the medium.
He was representative of the Philippines to the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) when the initial call sign of radio stations in the country was changed from K to D. Luzon stations were provided the call signs DZ and DW, Visayas stations DY, and Mindanao stations DX, a setup that continued to this day.
After retiring from PBS in 1970, Trinidad taught in the University of the Philippines for the next decade. PBS, meanwhile, was abolished in 1972 during Martial Law, and was replaced by the Bureau of Broadcast Services (BBS). From 1986 to 1990, he served as Secretary General of the Philippine National Commission for UNESCO. He died on January 21, 2001.
11th October
On October 11, 1531, Huldrych Zwingli was killed in battle against Roman Catholic forces in Zurich. Zwingli was ordained a Catholic priest in 1506, but was reformed mainly due to the influence of Desiderius Erasmus, who he met in 1514. In 1518, Zwingli became a pastor in Zurich, and he began the Reformation in Switzerland. After Martin Luther and John Calvin, Zwingli is often called the "Third Man of the Reformation."
12th October
On October 12, 539 BC, Babylon was taken virtually unopposed by the Persian King Cyrus the Great, who earlier defeated the Babylonian army in nearby Opis, believed to be around 80 kilometers from modern-day Baghdad, Iraq.
While Nabonidus was officially the Babylonian ruler at this time, it was believed that his son Belshazzar was in actual command of their forces, Nabonidus supposedly reigning from Tayma in Arabia for the past decade. It was in this setting where the Bible documented the famous "Writing on the Wall", as narrated in Daniel 5. Although it was unclear why Belshazzar, supposedly pressured by the Persian offensive, would have the audacity to hold a feast in Babylon, the Bible firmly attributed this scene as the pronouncement of Babylon's fall. That is, MENE, MENE, TEKEL, PARSIN - the kingdom's days have been numbered and it would be divided up by the Medes and the Persians. The chapter ended with the death of Belshazzar and the occupation of the city through a certain Darius the Mede, rather than King Cyrus himself.
As for Daniel, who once served under Nabonidus's predecessor Nebuchadnezzar and was the one able to interpret the Writing on the Wall, the Bible would continue to narrate how he was once more placed in a high position in the new Persian government.
Greek historian Xenophon, meanwhile, would say it was Nabonidus who was killed upon the fall of Babylon. Still, the Babylonian Berossus would beg to differ, citing that Nabonidus was instead spared by Cyrus and was appointed as governor, which he would serve until his death.
The Writing on the Wall would be used as a plot device by Jose Rizal later on with his 1891 novel El Filibusterismo, using a piece of paper that came with an exploding lamp to convey the message, implying a similar fate as those of the Babylonians in the Book of Daniel.
12th October
On October 12, 1868, Vice President Mariano Trias was born in Cavite. Taking up the codename Labong (bamboo shoot), he was believed to have joined the Katipunan during his studies in Manila. He took a degree in medicine at the University of Santo Tomas before returning to Cavite to help in the family's agricultural holdings. By this time, he also began recruitment for the revolutionary society.
When the Philippine Revolution erupted, Trias fought in the Battle of Noveleta, which became one of the early Filipino victories. Noveleta took place on August 30, 1896, which saw the revolutionaries face some 3,000 Spanish troops. When Filipino forces in Cavite became increasingly fragmented politically, Trias joined the Magdiwang faction which supported the leadership of Supremo Andres Bonifacio.
In the Tejeros Convention in March 1897, Trias was nominated first for the presidency of the proposed government, but lost to Emilio Aguinaldo, who was elected in absentia. When the motion to proclaim the second placer, namely Andres Bonifacio, as vice president was defeated, Trias won the election for the vice presidency. The subsequent Naic Assembly reaffirmed Trias's new position.
The Spanish Governor General Basilio Augustin, in anticipation of American arrival in the Philippines when Spain entered into war with the United States, organized a Filipino militia in 1898, of which revolutionary leaders such as Trias and Artemio Ricarte joined. The return of Aguinaldo, however, caused the collapse of the militia as the Filipinos defected.
During the second phase of the Revolution, he was appointed Secretary of Finance, a position he would serve in until May 1899. Thereafter, Trias was appointed Secretary of War. The outbreak of the Filipino-American War placed Trias in commanding general of Southern Luzon, and the designated successor to the presidency. Placed in charge of investigating what triggered the conflict with the Americans, his report on March 15, 1899 identified the United States as the aggressive party while Filipino troops around Manila were peaceful.
His ascension to the top post of the land was not meant to be, however, when Trias with other Filipino officials surrendered to the United States on March 15, 1901, eight days before the capture of Aguinaldo in Isabela. This left Trias's second in command, Miguel Malvar, leading what was left of the Filipino forces.
A founder of the Nacionalista Party, he was appointed governor of Cavite in July 1901, a position he would serve until 1905. He was part of the Filipino delegation who would participate in the St. Louis World Fair or the Louisiana Purchase Exposition in 1904. Trias died on February 22, 1914. His hometown of San Francisco de Malabon was renamed General Trias in his honor by virtue of Act No. 2889, approved on February 24, 1920.
13th October
On October 13, 1868, General Teresa Magbanua was born in Iloilo. After obtaining a teaching certificate in Colegio de Doña Cecilia and a master's degree in University of Santo Tomas, she returned to her hometown in Pototan to teach. During the Philippine Revolution, she contributed in organizing the Katipunan chapter in her province, although it was believed she would first see action in 1898, when she led a battle in Pilar, Capiz. She continued her revolutionary activities despite the refusal of her husband, Alejandro Balderas.
When the Americans landed in February 1899, Magbanua was among the Filipino leaders to command the defense of Iloilo. In the Second Battle of Jaro, also known as the Battle of Balantang, in March, she distinguished herself in the fighting that resulted to the reoccupation of Filipino forces of Jaro. She led the troops in their march commemorating the liberation.
Magbanua surrendered to the United States in 1900. While she appeared to have been accorded no official rank in the armed forces, she was nonetheless regarded by her followers as a "general." During the Second World War, while she was not fighting in the battlefield, Magbanua did what she could to help in the Filipino cause, including financial assistance. She eventually moved to Pagadian where she died in 1947.
13th October
On October 13, 2016, King Rama IX of Thailand, personal name Bhumibol Adulyadej (ภูมิพลอดุลยเดช), died in Bangkok. One of the longest reigning monarchs in modern history with 70 years on the throne, the king only made a single state visit to the Philippines, which formal relations with Thailand began in 1949. Rama IX was the first Thai monarch born in the United States, on December 5, 1927.
In July 1963, Rama IX visited Manila and Baguio, wherein he met President Diosdado Macapagal. Contact with Thailand, and its predecessor Siam, had been established centuries before. In the Boxer Codex (c. 1590s) for instance, the Siamese were illustrated.
14th October
On October 14, 1943, the independence of the Philippines was formalized under the Japanese-sponsored Second Republic with Jose Laurel, Sr. as President and Benigno Aquino, Sr. as Speaker of the National Assembly. Posing as liberators from "Western" colonization and advocates of the nationalist philosophy "Asia for the Asians", Japan pledged early during their military occupation the preparation for Filipino independence. When Prime Minister Tojo Hideki visited the Philippines in May 1943, he reiterated this promise, prompting the creation of the constitution by September of the same year.
The Filipino flag was raised by Emilio Aguinaldo and Artemio Ricarte, affirming the Japanese sense of Philippine history.
In the geopolitical front, all nations "liberated" by the Japanese were in reality subservient to Japan itself through what they called the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere (大東亜共栄圏), its theorists believing that the Japanese were superior to the rest of the Asian peoples. Despite this, Filipino leaders who collaborated did what they could to soften the tactics of the Japanese military, who still had a governor general assigned in the Philippines until the end of the Second World War.
Notably, the Laurel administration held firm against Filipino conscription in the Japanese armed forces, and made attempts to return to a certain degree of normalcy such as the reopening of schools, the resumption of economic activity, and the resolution of food shortages, among other reforms. The republic was also a conscious choice among the Filipino leaders, who rejected the Japanese proposition of establishing a dictatorship to govern the independent nation.
15th October
On October 15, 2018, Microsoft co-founder Paul Allen died in Seattle. Yet his contributions to Filipino historiography remain, particularly on locating the sinking site of Japanese battleship Musashi, one of the largest in the world along with her sister Yamato-class ships.
In 2015, Allen and his research team claimed to have found the wreck of Musashi in Sibuyan Sea, but was then a source of controversy since the Philippine government, as well as the Romblon LGU, stated that they were not informed beforehand of the search expedition. The search area covered more than 1,200 square kilometers, nearly the same size as the entire Romblon province. Eventually, in 2017, the Philippine government partnered with Allen's team after thorough review of existing legal mandates and provided them the necessary permits to continue their exploration. It was in the same year when Allen's team found the wreck of USS Indianapolis, a heavy cruiser believed to be torpedoed off the Philippine Sea.
15th October
On October 15, 1978, Dr. Gregorio Zara died. Among his better known works include his own version of the "videophone" which he demonstrated in 1954 and patented the next year. Making use of "photo phone signal separator network", the Filipino scientist's creation allowed people to talk and view each other at the same time, a two-way television-based phone, predating the 1956 development of related technology by the American Bell Labs called the "picturephone."
Other Zara patents would be a solar-powered water heater, an induction compass for pilots, and an airplane engine that runs on alcohol fuel. He also contributed in robotics, helping in the development of the walking Marex X-10.
In the realm of physics, he worked in 1930 with concepts on electrical kinetic resistance. It was in the same year he finished his doctorate in physics at Sorbonne. He obtained his bachelor's degree on mechanical engineering just four years earlier, in 1926, at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) through a scholarship grant.
His government service featured his technical expertise as he worked in the Department of Public Works and Communications, as well as the Department of Defense. He also shared his knowledge through teaching, becoming a professor in the Far East Air Transport Incorporated University (FEATI) in 1946 and vice president of the institution until 1962. Along with Juan Salcedo, Jr. and Alfredo Santos, Zara became one of the first National Scientists of the Philippines, awarded in 1978.
Zara was born in Batangas on March 8, 1902.
16th October
On October 16, 1916, the Senate of the Philippines was founded with Manuel Quezon as the first and longest-serving Senate President. With a membership of 24 senators representing 12 regions (all elected except for the 12th region, which was appointed by the American Governor General), the Upper House would continue operating until 1935, when the Commonwealth shifted to a unicameral legislature. Debates between unicameral and bicameral systems, meanwhile, saw the latter prevail as an amendment reestablished the two house of Congress in 1941. The Second World War in the Philippines, however, interrupted the tenure of the newly elected officials.
16th October
On October 16, 1916, the Senate of the Philippines was founded with Manuel Quezon as the first and longest-serving Senate President. With a membership of 24 senators representing 12 regions (all elected except for the 12th region, which was appointed by the American Governor General), the Upper House would continue operating until 1935, when the Commonwealth shifted to a unicameral legislature. Debates between unicameral and bicameral systems, meanwhile, saw the latter prevail as an amendment reestablished the two house of Congress in 1941. The Second World War in the Philippines, however, interrupted the tenure of the newly elected officials.
The Senate would resume in 1945 with a converted schoolhouse in Manila as temporary venue in lieu of the Legislative Building. In 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. placed the country under martial law. While the line of succession would have the Senate President succeeding Marcos if no elections were held by 1973, the constitutional limit of the presidential term being eight consecutive years, government forces instead closed down the legislature. What was also hastened by martial law was the ratification of a new constitution, which abolished the bicameral system in favor of a single Batasang Pambansa. Elections for this, however, would not occur until 1978.
The Senate would be reestablished once more as People Power swept the nation and the 1987 Constitution was crafted. This would be the current framework with which the Philippine Senate continues to operate to this day. As it was in 1916, the Philippines still has 24 senators, although they no longer represent regional districts but were elected nationwide at-large.
17th October
On October 17, 1973, Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) ministers recommended an embargo on nations which they believed to have contributed to Israel's defense in the Yom Kippur War, also known as the 1973 Arab-Israeli War. Earlier, member states already raised their posted price for oil, quadrupling the prices from 3 US dollars per barrel before the embargo to a peak of 12 US dollars by 1974 while cutting supply.
The Philippines was not spared from the global repercussions of the 1973 energy crisis. In response, President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. signed Presidential Decree 334 on November 9 to create the Philippine National Oil Company (PNOC) which aimed to stabilize the supply and develop the local petroleum market. PNOC eventually became one of the largest sources of income for the Philippines. In 1979, the nation began producing its own petroleum through Nido-1, which had a commercial production rate of 40,000 barrels per day. Production of the Nido fields ceased in 2019.
Diversification of energy sources was also in the agenda of the Marcos administration, decreasing dependence of electric power plants on oil imports and expanding renewable sources. By 1985, renewable energy sources constitute around 50 percent of total electricity generation in the Philippines, compared to 25 percent in 2017, three decades later. The achievements of Marcos's National Energy Program (NEP) fell short of its optimistic targets, however, with actual power production being less than their projected contributions to the electric grid.
18th October
On October 18, 1565, the Battle of Fukuda Bay saw the first recorded engagement between European and Japanese forces. A Portuguese carrack (kurofune) under Captain João Pereira, intending to trade with Yokoseura in Saikai, was persuaded by information on the port's destruction to proceed instead to Fukuda, some 40 kilometers away. Accompanied by a galleon commanded by Diogo de Menezes, they were eventually confronted by the fleet of Takanobu Matsura, daimyo (lord) of Hirado.
Matsura earlier expelled the Christians in his domain after years of tolerance, and believed his action against the Portuguese would serve as punishment for trying to find a new port of entry. With 10 sekibunes (each capable of carrying one cannon) and 60 kobayas, the Japanese numerical advantage did not fare well against superior Portuguese firepower. Three sekibunes were said to have been sunk before the Hirado called off the action.
The Philippines was also believed to have been a venue of Japanese engagements against Europeans, this time in combat with Spanish troops. The details on this, however, may seem quite different compared to what was portrayed in popular culture.
19th October
On October 19, 1886, Associate Justice Jorge Bocobo was born in Gerona, Tarlac. Being one of the first Filipino students sent to the United States to study, which became known as the pensionados, he proceeded to finish law in Indiana University in 1907. He would obtain Doctor of Laws at the University of Southern California in 1930. Upon returning, he taught law in the University of the Philippines and would eventually become University President from 1934 to 1939, bringing with his service the belief on the importance of moral guidance, human rights, sense of history, and women's education. After his presidency, he would be appointed as Secretary of Public Instruction, succeeding Vice President Sergio Osmeña.
A member of the Central United Methodist Church and an advocate of Protestant evangelism, Bocobo wrote the national prayer on the occasion of the Day of Prayer for Philippine Independence in February 1926.
His service as an Associate Justice during the Japanese occupation, however, would lead American authorities to doubt Bocobo's person. He was charged with treason in May 1945, although his name would eventually be cleared.
As Chair of the Code Commission, Bocobo was attributed the creation of the Civil Code of the Philippines, an effort to replace the Spanish Civil Code which remained in place even through the Commonwealth years. The Civil Code was enacted in 1949. Meanwhile, this legal achievement earned him the Presidential Merit Award from President Elpidio Quirino.
Bocobo was also known for his translation work, which included Jose Rizal's novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, Andres Bonifacio's Decalogue, and the national anthem Lupang Hinirang. He died on July 23, 1965.
20th October
On October 20, 1944, American forces under General Douglas MacArthur, accompanied by top Filipino officials including President Sergio Osmeña, Sr. and Carlos P. Romulo, landed on Leyte after intense naval fire from ships led by Vice Admiral Thomas Kinkaid. This officially commenced the Battle of Leyte. Earlier, preliminary landings had been conducted in Suluan, Homonhon, and Dinagat Islands while recon teams cleared the Leyte beaches in preparation for the main American landing.
Filipino guerrillas, numbering some 8,000 in the province, were also notable as they attacked Japanese troops through various skirmishes even prior to the Leyte landing.
The guerrilla movement in Leyte was organized as early as 1942, never ceasing in their fight against the Japanese. Meanwhile, as far as MacArthur was concerned, Leyte was the fulfillment of his iconic promise before departing for Australia in 1942: "I shall return."
The Japanese military, under the command of General Tomoyuki Yamashita, might have not been completely taken by surprise as they observed how the northern tilt of initial skirmishes off the Philippine Sea reduced hints of the American main force landing in Mindanao, although the initial Japanese force in Leyte numbered only around 20,000 out of the 400,000 Japanese soldiers in the Philippines. When they realized that the island would be the focal point of the American campaign, the Japanese poured some 60,000 more troops in an attempt to engage in what they believed would be a decisive battle.
The reinforcement proved problematic for MacArthur and his planners. It was one thing to land a massive force of over 120,000 troops, a number that would eventually grow to a total of around 200,000 over the course of the campaign, but it was another to provide for their logistics. The situation was exacerbated by operational habits which reminded of his initial response against the 1941 Japanese offensive towards Luzon. Overall, the campaign extended until December 1944, coinciding with the tail-end of the Pacific typhoon season. The Japanese suffered over 70,000 casualties while the Americans had some 15,000 casualties.
21st October
On October 21, 1972, President Ferdinand Marcos, Sr. issued Presidential Decree No. 27, also known as the Tenant Emancipation Act. The only handwritten law in modern Filipino history thus far, tenants were accorded the right to own the land they cultivate for the first time, provided they would be members of farmers' cooperatives. The decree was also limited in lands cultivating rice and corn, excluding areas that raised cash crops like tobacco, coconut, and sugar, among others.
Prior to this, share tenancy was abolished in lieu of leasehold tenancy as provided for by Republic Act No. 3844, also known as the Agricultural Land Reform Code of 1963. This law also created the Land Bank of the Philippines for distribution and sale to small landowners. In practice, however, share tenancy still remained by the time Presidential Decree No. 27 was issued.
Meanwhile, a year later, in 1973, Marcos issued Proclamation No. 1193 designating October 21 as Tenants' Emancipation Day.
From 1972 to 2016, more than 4.7 million hectares have been distributed to 2.8 million farmer beneficiaries. The scope of the original Tenant Emancipation Act, however, was limited only to an effective area totalling some 1.4 million hectares, compared to the later target under the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Program (CARP) of over 5.4 million hectares. With Republic Act No. 6657, also known as the Comprehensive Agrarian Reform Law of 1988, the crop limitation to rice and corn was repealed, allowing farmers who also cultivate other types of crops to be landed as well.
22nd October
On October 22, 1905, Datu Ali was killed with around 20 of his men by American forces along the Malala River in the vicinity of Buluan, Maguindanao. Ali, who scored the only American death reported by that mission, was said to have been slain by 15 bullets. The surviving Moro troops were captured.
The 70-strong American contingent led by Captain (later General) Frank Ross McCoy journeyed from Digos to track down the elusive Ali, then regarded as one of the last Moro leaders to resist the United States. They were accompanied by 150 locals under the command of Datu Enok, believed to be an enemy of Ali. Enok served as the Americans' guide and interpreter for the said expedition.
Upon seeing Ali's death, Enok supposedly announced, "Datu Ali muerte!" The Americans reported some 500 rifles surrendered by Moros after learning about the passing of Datu Ali.
Lieutenant Philip Remington, credited to be the soldier who first shot Datu Ali, was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross for his action.
Such was the threat of Datu Ali that nearly a year after his demise, in May 1906, there were reports that the body buried by McCoy was a double and that Ali was actually alive, enlisting the erstwhile foe Datu Enok as his ally in a new "rebellion." This was, of course, another story.
Datu Ali, a veteran of the 1886 Spanish campaign against Mindanao by Governor General Emilio Terrero, was a cousin of the powerful Datu Utto Anwaruddin, who the Spaniards dubbed as the "Second Kudarat." Utto's defeat and acceptance of peace reduced his influence in the Maguindanao sultanate, which had no sultan from 1888 to 1896.
As he retired, the aging Utto designated Ali as his successor by 1899, assuming the title Rajah of Buayan in addition to his existing role as Rajah of Tinunkup. At one time, Datu Ali commanded some 2,000 troops and possessed 80 cannons of different calibers.
Ali, however, was not without rivals. One of them was the Chinese Datu Piang Tan of Cotabato, who once served as a minister of Datu Utto. Breaking up from his former lord in 1893, Piang tried to declare himself as "Sultan of Mindanao," but was overshadowed by Ali's emergence. It was said Piang was one of the local informants who prompted the 1905 American expedition against Ali, then alleged to have been suffering from malaria. Piang would continue to live on until 1933, being integrated in the American political system and was believed to have accumulated massive wealth due to his various economic activities.
Meanwhile, Utto's death in 1902 only added to Ali's boldness, who managed to survive the worst of General Leonard Wood's campaigns in Mindanao, the first American governor in the newly established Moro Province. There were rumors that Ali wore a "special shirt", a belief reinforced by Piang as well, which made the wearer immune from bullets. The Americans said he wore no such thing in his final battle.
23rd October
On October 23, 1944, the Battle of Leyte Gulf was engaged between American and Japanese navies. Involving some 400 ships and 200,000 soldiers, it was arguably one of the largest naval battles in history, but action was not confined to Leyte waters alone. There were separate and coordinated engagements off Samar, Surigao, Palawan, Sibuyan Sea, and Cape Engaño. The Imperial Japanese Navy, divided into three main forces, implemented one of the variants of their Operation Victory (捷1号作戦) in hopes of dealing what their leaders hoped would be the decisive battle ending the war. Unlike Pearl Harbor nearly three years earlier, wherein keeping the fleet intact became a priority, Japanese plans focused on retaining the Philippines at all costs. They were, of course, at a numerical and technological disadvantage, but hoped that land-based systems could balance the battle.
The Americans, meanwhile, also had their own issues to contend. With no unified command like the Japanese, yet with a larger force to manage, operational weaknesses on both sides indicated that the battle had a chance to go either way. Fog of war contributed heavily in the outcome, the Japanese cautious in engaging the enemy while the Americans overestimating the remaining rival strength.
The battle also saw the first organized "kamikaze" or suicide bomber attacks, conducted by the Special Attack Force (特別攻撃隊), in attempts to increase American losses. The battle ended three days later, with the United States losing seven (7) ships, including the escort carrier St. Lo, which first saw the kamikaze attack in action. This compared to Japan losing 26 of their ships, including one of the world's largest battleships, the Musashi, and the last of the aircraft carriers which attacked Pearl Harbor, the Zuikaku.
Had the battle gone in favor of the Japanese, even in a moderate fashion, the land campaign in Leyte might have faced more difficulties moving forward.
23rd October
On October 23, 1857, Filipino painter Juan Luna was born in Ilocos Norte. Although his passion was with art, Luna entered the Escuela Nautica de Manila (later Philippine Merchant Marine Academy - PMMAOfficial) before studying at the Academia de Dibujo y Pintura. He eventually went to Spain in 1877 and enrolled in Real Academia de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, where he met the Spanish painter Alejo Vera, one of his mentors and inspirations.
One of Luna's first major recognitions overseas was for his La Muerte de Cleopatra (The Death of Cleopatra), which won second prize in the 1881 National Exposition at Madrid. This would begin a series of award-winning creations from his artistic genius, including the Spoliarium (1884 Madrid), the Battle of Lepanto (1888 Barcelona), the Parisian Life, and El Pueblo y Los Reyes (1904 St. Louis).
Luna's personal life, however, became a source of controversy. Charges were filed against him in 1892 for allegedly killing his wife and in-law. While acquitted of his "crime of passion", Luna would return to the Philippines by 1894. A rayadillo design of Filipino military uniforms was attributed to Luna. He died in Hong Kong on December 7, 1899, his final days dedicated to being a diplomat for the First Republic.
23rd October
On October 23, 1417, Paduka Batara (Patuko Patala, Paduka Pahala) of Sulu died in Ming China while on a diplomatic mission. The Yongle Emperor, who saw him as a "brother to the empire", gave Paduka Batara a memorial:
"Now then, the King, brilliant and sagacious, gentle and honest, especially outstanding and naturally talented, as a sincere act of true respect for the Way of Heaven, did not shrink from a voyage of many tens of thousands of miles to lead his familial household in person, together with his tribute officers and fellow countrymen, to cross the sea routes in a spirit of loyal obedience."
To this day, his tomb was regarded as the only resting place of a foreign ruler being continuously maintained in Mainland China.
24th October
On October 24, 1945, the United Nations was founded with 51 original members, including the Commonwealth of the Philippines. While the Philippines is quite recognizable in the current UN logo, it was no larger than a dot in the original prototype of the emblem. In the discussions leading to this creation, when it seemed the Philippines was about to be excluded in the design for being "too small", future UN General Assembly President Carlos P. Romulo insisted on the inclusion of the Philippines in iconic fashion: "I want that dot!"
The Philippines was also one of the signatories of the 1942 Declaration by United Nations, a document which became the basis for the said organization.
24th October
On October 24, 1853, Filipino philologist and lexicographer Pedro Serrano Laktaw was born in Bulacan. Known for his landmark work Diccionario Hispano-Tagalog (Spanish-Tagalog Dictionary), published in 1889 and 1914, Laktaw obtained his maestro superior at Salamanca and his maestro normal at Madrid. Laktaw had the distinction of being a tutor of Alfonso XIII, who became King of Spain upon his birth (his mother Maria Christina of Austria served as regent). During his time overseas, Laktaw was an active part of the Reform Movement, being helpful with the written works of fellow Filipinos such as Isabelo de los Reyes and Marcelo H. Del Pilar.
When he returned to the Philippines, Laktaw served as a teacher and helped in building the Masonry in the archipelago (his codename was Panday Pira) until his arrest due to suspicions of being an agent of Revolution. He would eventually be released during the administration of Governor General Ramon Blanco, later taking part in the consultative assembly organized in May 1898 by Blanco's successor Basilio Augustin in hopes of unifying Filipino energies against the United States. Laktaw would continue his nationalistic work during the American period. In 1918, the Supreme Court recognized Laktaw's intellectual property rights for his dictionary. He died on September 22, 1928.
25th October
On October 25, 1593, an Intramuros guard was "transported" from Manila to Mexico City while sleeping on duty, literally travelling thousands of kilometers across the vast Pacific Ocean overnight. Later identified as Gil Perez, the so-called "transported soldier" became the first documented case of "teleportation" in history.
Since his uniform was supposedly different from the Spanish soldiers in Mexico, he was highly suspected and thrown into jail as a lunatic. He was eventually freed when his story of guarding Intramuros was corroborated by passengers of a galleon from the Philippines, who happened to be acquainted with Perez. He was later reinstated to his post in Manila, perhaps glad of his relief.
One tricky part in Perez's narrative was the death of Spanish Governor General Gomez Perez Dasmariñas, who was killed in a mutiny by Chinese laborers while en route to an expedition. Perez's claim to have known Dasmariñas's death even before the news came to Mexico was regarded as proof of his "teleportation." Then again, the date of Dasmariñas's passing was subject to debate to this day, with at least three dates offered, namely October 19, 23, and 25 of that year. If Dasmariñas died on the 25th, it would have been difficult to believe that Perez knew about it prior to his so-called teleportation that night.
Meanwhile, those familiar with the galleon trade might have an idea that galleons usually depart from the Philippines prior to the typhoon season, i.e., around June. The first galleon, therefore, that would have arrived while Perez was still imprisoned might have not been aware of Dasmariñas's demise in October. In fact, the Spanish government would not name a new Governor General until 1595 in the person of Francisco de Tello de Guzman, with Dasmariñas's immediate successors Pedro de Rojas and his son Luis Perez Dasmariñas being interim governors before de Guzman's arrival and eventual assumption of office in 1596.
Through the years, the story of the transported soldier morphed, and the name Gil Perez might be a convenient addition as well to the already fantastic tale.
25th October
On October 25, 2001, operating system Windows XP was released to the general public to succeed Windows 2000. Although Microsoft ended support for XP by 2014, reportedly over 15 percent of Filipinos still used Windows XP in 2015 despite the release of four newer OS versions namely Windows Vista, 7, 8, and 10.
26th October
On October 26, 1901, General Troadio Galicano surrendered to the United States in Barili, Cebu with 115 troops and 10 rifles (one of which was the Japanese Murata rifle). Entering the seminary to pursue priesthood, his studies would be interrupted by the outbreak of the Philippine Revolution. Starting as an officer under General Arcadio Maxilom, Galicano would eventually be promoted as general as well, setting camp in his hometown Carcar.
During the American period, he would finish law in 1906 and become elected as Cebu representative the next year. He would later serve as senator of the Philippines, being elected to the post in 1925.
26th October
On October 26, 1909, Korean nationalist An Jung-geun (안중근) assassinated Japanese Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi (伊藤博文) at the Harbin Railway Station. Firing six shots, three of them fatally hit Itō, while injuring three other Japanese officials, namely Kawagami Toshihiko, Morita Jirō, and Tanaka Seitarō.
After accomplishing this deed, he supposedly yelled in Russian "Корея! Ура!" (Korea! Hooray!) and waved the Korean flag before being arrested by Russians, only to be turned over later to the Japanese colonial government.
In 1905, Korea became a Japanese protectorate after Japan won its war against the Russian Empire. Itō, while initially opposed to Korean annexation, eventually agreed to the prospect, but subsequently resigned his post as Resident-General of Japan in Korea.
As for An, born in 1879 and was a baptized Roman Catholic taking the name Thomas An, he proclaimed himself as a "lieutenant general" of the Korean Resistance Army (의병) and issued fifteen (15) reasons why Itō must die. Ironically, both An and Itō held Pan-Asianism views, although the two apparently differed in their approaches. On March 26, 1910, after enduring trial, An was executed in Lüshunkou (Ryojun) as a criminal and a terrorist.
While Koreans regarded An as a national hero, not all Japanese condemned his actions. For one, Japanese socialists and anarchists such as Kōtoku Denjirō (幸徳傳次郎) praised An as "gijin" or righteous. To this day, however, the legacy of An's assassination continued to influence modern politics in the region.
In 2014, the People's Republic of China built a memorial for An in Harbin, site of his deadly act, only to earn Japan's protest. The memorial would be reopened in 2019 after being moved to a Korean arts center. Seoul also housed a memorial for An at Mount Namsan, previously the site of Chōsen Shrine (조선신궁), the most important Shinto shrine built during Japanese colonial administration of Korea.
27th October
On October 27, 1901, Generals Arcadio Maxilom and Juan Climaco surrendered to the United States with 40 troops, 30 rifles, and eight cannons in Tuburan, Cebu. On the same day, General Mateo Luga surrendered as well in Carcar with 38 of his troops. This date marked the end of organized Filipino resistance to the Americans in Cebu, seven months after the capture of President Emilio Aguinaldo and one month after the Battle of Balangiga in Samar.
Maxilom, who was a teacher prior to serving as capitan municipal of Tuburan, was integrated to the Katipunan by Pantaleon Villegas, also known as Leon Kilat. After Kilat's death, Maxilom carried on the Philippine Revolution in Cebu and led the liberation of Cebu by Christmas of 1898. Under his leadership, codes used by Cebuano revolutionaries differed from those used by the republican government centered in Malolos. Even as the Americans arrived in Cebu two months later, Maxilom and his troops fought to maintain their freedom.
Months after his surrender, in 1902, Maxilom was arrested by American authorities in suspicion of plotting another rebellion, only to be released by 1903. When he died in 1924, it was said his funeral march stretched four kilometers long, with Aguinaldo himself attending the occasion. General Maxilom Avenue in Cebu City was named in his honor.
Climaco, who was gobernadorcillo of Toledo, was appointed chief of staff by Maxilom before eventually being promoted as general himself. After the war, Climaco would become Cebu's first elected governor under American rule in 1902. Later, he would be part of the Filipino delegation to the 1904 St. Louis Exposition. Climaco fell ill en route, and died in 1907. His appointee as acting governor, Sergio Osmeña, Sr., succeeded him. Barangay General Juan Climaco in Toledo was named in his honor.
Luga, an Ibanag born in Ilocos and settled in Isabela, was a veteran of the early battles of the Philippine Revolution in Antipolo and Montalban (now Rodriguez), among others, before proceeding to Cebu as a military adviser, wherein he further cemented his legacy as a revolutionary general. He was regarded as the only major non-Visayan leader who fought in Cebu during the Revolution. After the war, he served in the Philippine Constabulary until his resignation in 1914. He died in 1935, unable to return to Isabela. The General Mateo Luga Award was named in his honor.
29th October
On October 29, 1866, General Antonio Luna was born in Manila. While hailed for his contributions in leading the military, there were also valid criticisms on Luna never winning a battle during the Philippine-American War.
A scientist by profession, one of his major works include a study on malaria, a disease that remains endemic in parts of the Philippines to this day. Luna was able to complete his doctorate, one of the first Filipinos to do so abroad. As part of the Reform Movement, he wrote for La Solidaridad with the pseudonym Taga-Ilog. His interest in fighting and military tactics was also notable.
While he did not join the first phase of the Philippine Revolution, he would eventually be an active part of the second phase by 1898. His non-participation in 1896, however, earned him critics among those who had been with the Revolution from the start, especially as Luna quickly rose to a Cabinet position (Assistant Secretary of War) within the two months he returned to the Philippines. It was no secret in these circles how Luna once denounced the Katipunan and its members, i.e., "nagturo."
His political views also ran counter against those harbored by some government officials in the nascent republic, particularly those who believed in American goodwill. Prior to his death, Luna even publicized through the newspaper La Independencia his intent to form a new Cabinet with himself at its head. Then again, he was not wrong to suspect the intentions of the Americans early on.
His immediate response to meet with President Emilio Aguinaldo as soon as he received the message to come to Cabanatuan in June 1899, so much so that he left his larger escort to arrive as early as possible, suggested that he might have seen the prospect of a development going to his favor in the Filipino government. Despite their personal opinions of each other, Aguinaldo and Luna appeared to be in agreeable terms, at least for the most part, when it came to professional matters.
While Luna's death was not officially publicized until June 8, the Aguinaldo government took actions to respond to the loss of the general and to dispel potential rumors that Luna himself had taken over the Filipino republic. On June 6, telegrams were sent to all military heads in the provinces that the President would assume active direction of the armed forces, a position Aguinaldo had earlier assumed when Luna resigned on February 28, 1899. He would ask to be reinstated a month later, in March 1899. It was also by this time Luna had made his last will and testament (March 31). Luna's loss, coming a month after the fall of Apolinario Mabini as Prime Minister, was nonetheless seen as the weakening of the more radical proponents of independence.
30th October
On October 30, 2014, Senator Juan Flavier died. After earning his medicine degree at the University of the Philippines and his master's degree in public health at Johns Hopkins University, the Manila-born doctor chose to serve in rural areas. He was also president of the Philippine Rural Reconstruction Movement and the International Institute of Rural Reconstruction. Meanwhile, Flavier was one of the co-presenters of the long-standing public service show Kapwa Ko Mahal Ko from 1975 to 1992.
In 1992, he was appointed as Health Secretary, a position he would serve for the next three years. One of his landmark projects was the institutionalization of "Doctor to the Barrios" in 1993, also the title of his 1970 book, which empowered doctors to serve in rural communities. It was also in 1993 when the last case of wild polio virus was reported in the Philippines until the outbreak in 2019.
Other iconic programs during his service include Yosi Kadiri, Oplan Sagip Mata, Pusong Pinoy, and the popularization of iodized salt. His term would be cut short by his campaign and election to the Senate in 1995.
At one time, he was regarded as the "poorest" senator. During this tenure, he authored and sponsored various legislation such as the Philippine Nursing Act (RA 9173), Comprehensive Dangerous Drugs Act (RA 9165), National Service Training Program Act (RA 9163), and Anti-Money Laundering Act (RA 9160).
31st October
On October 31, 1517, German professor and monk Martin Luther sent his 95 Theses to the Archbishop of Mainz, perhaps with copies publicly posted as well in accordance to the customs of the University of Wittenberg. While Luther himself was adamant in using public channels to express his protest, printed copies of the Theses in Latin and later German found its way to many, so much so that Luther had to defend his beliefs at the 1519 Leipzig Debate and the 1521 Diet of Worms, among others. In a popular quote attributed to him, it was apparent Luther would eventually regard the printing press as "the ultimate gift of God."
This was considered as the formal beginning of the Protestant Reformation, but Luther was not the first to call for reform of the Christian Church and suffered for his faith. Peter Waldo of Lyon rejected the purgatory, praying for the dead, and indulgences three centuries before Luther. English professor and priest John Wycliffe upheld the Bible as the only authority (sola scriptura) on God and worked towards the translation of the Bible in the vernacular more than a century before Luther made his translation in German. Czech priest Jan Hus preached against papal authority, and boldly declared upon facing his death: "You may roast the goose, but a hundred years from now a swan will arise whose singing you will not be able to silence." Hus was executed in 1415, a century before Luther sent his Theses.
While there was no universal conclusion on how the Reformation affected the world five centuries hence, there were beliefs that it influenced the formation of the modern nation-state, the separation of church and state, and a pattern in economic development which Max Weber would call "Protestant ethic."
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