#OnThisDay: Selected Historical Events in the month of January
January
In January 1895, Sulu Sultan Jamal ul-Kiram II paid a tribute of 10,000 pesos to the Spanish government, complying with Governor General Ramon Blanco's decree on March 1, 1894 to conduct a census and collect the appropriate taxes. The tax would then be dedicated to the Sulu development, particularly infrastructure.
The sultan's tribute, equivalent to around 8.25 million pesos today (adjusted to inflation), was meant to represent 100,000 of his subjects, but instead of collecting the tax from them, Kiram took the money from his own wealth. Whether the sultan was unwilling to antagonize his datus or unable to collect the tribute, Kiram's position in the sultanate was not quite strong.
Born on March 27, 1868, the Sulu leader then known as Rajah Muda Amirul Kiram was proclaimed sultan by his followers in 1884. Despite his clear claim to succession, Kiram being the brother of the previous sultan Badar ud-Din II (reigned 1881-1884), the Spanish government was not confident about his stances. In addition, he was challenged to the throne by Datu Ali ud-Din, grandson of Sultan Shakirullah (Datu Sakilan, reigned 1821-1823). He had support in the north of the sultanate, while Kiram was backed by the south.
The Spanish, while officially neutral, had their own preference in Datu Harun ar-Rashid, the only surviving signatory of the 1878 agreement between Sulu and Britain regarding the "permanent lease" (pajak) of Sulu's territories in North Borneo. His more stable loyalty to Spain was rewarded with appointment as their commander in Palawan and Balabac.
As the two parties fought, Rashid was in Manila trying to come up with an agreement, but neither would settle for a compromise. Kiram, in particular, refused the idea of having a regent, even if it meant Spanish recognition of his position. Soon enough, orders from Madrid buttressed Rashid's claim, although his family had not produced a sultan in over a century.
On September 24, 1886, Rashid returned to Manila where he would be formally proclaimed sultan in Malacañang in the presence of Governor General Emilio Terrero and Arab Chief Minister Sheikh Mustafa Ibn Ahmad. Probably as final resort, Kiram attempted to have British recognition, but he was given a cold shoulder. Britain already gained the Spanish renunciation of their "claims of sovereignty" over North Borneo through the 1885 Madrid Protocol, which was primary British interest in the area.
Rashid, with massive Spanish support through Sulu Governor Juan Arolas, launched a military campaign which forced Kiram and some 3,000 of his followers out of his capital at Maimbung. The Spanish suffered over 100 casualties, while the Tausug casualties ranged from 80 to 250. Kiram would keep leading the resistance against Rashid's reign, while Datu Ali ud-Din, after announcing his decision not to pursue the title of sultan after the Spanish campaigns, would retire to Patikul until his death in 1891.
Despite Rashid's rise to power, he never truly gained the trust of his people. After Arolas ended his service as governor of Sulu in 1893, Rashid proceeded to request the Spanish to allow him to retire as sultan. On December 16 of the same year, he left Jolo for Palawan, the Spanish government only too happy about the development as they saw him more as a liability in maintaining their sovereignty in Sulu.
Perhaps influenced by this succession crisis, Kiram upon ascending the throne kept the peace with the Spanish. With his payment of tribute, he finally recognized their sovereignty over Sulu. While he did not follow Rashid's example of going to Manila for his official recognition, it appeared more of caution on his part to leave Sulu altogether. Part of the reason would be seen in troubles caused by the remaining followers of the dead Datu Ali ud-Din, forcing the Spanish to act. In fact, his first trip outside the sultanate would only be in 1897, some four years after Rashid's departure.
Kiram would continue his reign long after the end of Spanish rule in the Philippines.
January
In January 1886, the Spanish campaign against Datu Utto of Buayan began under the personal command of Governor General Emilio Terrero, one of the Spanish pioneers on the use of military photogrammetry. Until two years prior to this, the Spanish believed to have successfully integrated Maguindanao when its sultan, Muhammad Makakwa, accepted the sovereignty of Spain. The Spanish government rewarded his loyalty with the designated rank of "general" and the title "Lord of Tamontaka." Spanish presence was also established as early as 1861 in Cotabato, their fortifications in Reina Regente symbolizing their newfound power in the region, but their position two decades later was still not as strong as hoped.
Makakwa's death in 1884, meanwhile, saw the emergence of Datu Utto (Uto Anwaruddin, pictured). With the Maguindanao sultanate reduced in influence in the Pulangi area, Utto began to exact tribute from neighboring territories, controlling the area from Liguasan Marsh to Lake Buluan. His control of Sarangani Bay, still free from effective Spanish occupation, ensured that Utto would continue to receive the supplies he needed to sustain his power, weapons included. In addition, Utto seemed to be creating rapport among the Maranao in the north, occupying the vacuum left by the Spanish campaigns against Sulu.
Utto also controlled the supplies that the Spanish could expect to receive in Cotabato, exposing the weakness of Spain's claim of sovereignty in the interior of Mindanao.
The Spanish, seeing how the clever Utto remained independent despite the treaties they signed up with him since at least 1864, perceived him as a threat to the relative peace in the region as he continually behaved as hegemon of Mindanao. Some even gave him the moniker "Second Kudarat," highlighting the strength he had accumulated through the years. This compelled the Spanish to attack.
By February 4, Utto's capital of Bakat (Dulawan, now Datu Piang in Maguindanao) was successfully taken, and he had since fought a defensive war. Despite his defense buildup, the combined arms of the Spanish which integrated artillery forced Utto to remain on the retreat. There were bright spots during the fighting, such as when Utto attacked Tamontaka (now Cotabato City), but overall, the conflict was not going his way. Those who felt oppressed by Utto were attracted to the Spanish side and gave them assistance, but the datu had not been beaten yet.
The wet season halted the Spanish campaign for the rest of 1886, resuming their operations only by early 1887. Through the mediation of his uncle, Datu Silungan, Utto on March 10, 1887 finally made peace with the Spanish, but he made reservations that he meant to reestablish friendship with Spain, not to surrender his independence. Still, this solicited criticism back in Manila, for the costly campaign had not fully humbled the datu and integrated his realm under the Spanish flag. In fact, the Spanish thereafter still had to request permission for passage in Utto's territories.
1st January
On January 1, 1899, President Emilio Aguinaldo addressed the Malolos Congress to propose establishing "national solidarity" with the people of Sulu and Mindanao upon the basis of "real federation with absolute respect for their beliefs and traditions." Throughout 1898, the Aguinaldo-led government had made attempts to gain the support of the Muslim datus in the name of unity, highlighting how other ethnic groups such as those in the Cordillera have joined the cause of the Philippine Revolution. It had also warned how the Americans would curtail liberties as the Spanish had done. This was done as reports were received in Luzon on how some Muslim warriors fought against the revolutionaries as they had fought the Spanish.
2nd January
On January 2, 1985, legendary Filipino boxer Gabriel "Flash" Elorde died due to lung cancer. Fighting 118 bouts in four weight divisions during the span of his pro career, Elorde lorded over the super featherweight for seven years (1960 to 1967). This made him the longest reigning Filipino boxing champion until Donnie "Ahas" Nietes broke the record in 2014. Nietes was also a fighter in four weight divisions.
At the age of 16, Elorde made his professional debut in 1951, and was able to win the OPBF regional title for the bantamweight division the following year. It was also his first match outside the Philippines, fighting in the famed Kokugikan Arena in Japan. Meanwhile, he won his first world title when he knocked out American boxer and defending world champion Harold Gomes in the Araneta Coliseum. This was in the super featherweight division. Gomes would never fight for a title match after Elorde.
Elorde's boxing style was said to have integrated the eskrima, a Filipino martial art, and has since influenced out-boxer fighters. Even outside the ring, Elorde loomed large in the consciousness of the Filipino public. From TV commercials to films, he was present. The Elorde Awards, inaugurated in 2000 as the highest recognition of Filipino professional boxers, has been created in his honor. Among the more recent awardees are also Filipino titleholders, namely Jerwin Ancajas (super flyweight), Johnriel Casimero (bantamweight), and Pedro Taduran (minimumweight).
3rd January
On January 3, 1942, the Japanese Military Administration in the Philippines was established with the purpose of emancipation from the "oppressive domination" of the United States, and the establishment of "the Philippines for the Filipinos" as member of the Co-Prosperity Sphere in the Greater East Asia (大東亜共栄圏). Carrying over all government institutions from the Philippine Commonwealth "for the time being," as well as the freedom of religion and customs, the new administration nonetheless affirmed the severance of formal relations between the Philippines and America.
To recall, the Japanese military campaign in the Philippines began on December 8, 1941. It took less than a month before Manila came under Japanese control, on January 2, 1942.
In an address to the Diet also in January 1942, Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo declared that "Japan will gladly grant the Philippines its independence so long as it cooperates and recognizes Japan's program of establishing the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere."
Twenty days later, the Philippine Executive Commission was formed with Jorge B. Vargas appointed by General Masaharu Homma as its chairman. The commission composed of Filipinos was meant to provisionally govern the Philippines until the Second Philippine Republic was inaugurated on October 14, 1943. Each department, however, had designated Japanese advisers. Attempts to return to normalcy included the reopening of schools by June 1942, but socioeconomic conditions continued to deteriorate even as Filipino leaders were quite cooperative to the Japanese authorities.
4th January
On January 4, 1897, eleven of the 15 Martyrs of Bicol (Quince Martires del Bicol, Kaglimang Martir kan Bicol) were executed in Bagumbayan, days after being arrested upon suspicion of plotting against the Spanish, and enduring trial by military court. The remaining two were exiled, and the last two died in prison. This came at a time when much of Bicol believed the Philippine Revolution had subsided, since the region, which contributed financial and military support to the Spanish cause, barely received reports from Spanish sources. As Elias Ataviado noted of the perception in Albay, the deaths of the Quince Martires had greater immediate impact on them than even the death of Jose Rizal.
Among the Fifteen Martyrs were the following: Rev. Gabriel Prieto, Rev. Inocencio Herrera, Rev. Severino Diaz, Manuel Abella, Domingo Abella, Camilo Jacob, Macario Valentin, Cornelio Mercado, Mariano Melgarejo, Florencio Lerma, Tomas Prieto, Ramon Abella, Mariano Ordenanza, Mariano Arana, and Leon Hernandez. The first eleven cited were the ones executed in Bagumbayan on January 4, 1897. Hernandez and Ordenanza died in jail, while Arana and Ramon Abella were sent to exile to Fernando Poo (now Bioko, Equatorial Guinea).
4th January
On January 4, 1663, the Spanish in Zamboanga were ordered again to evacuate their garrison, months after failing to comply with earlier instructions to leave in consideration of the Christianized peoples in the area. It was said that the garrison was composed of 600 troops, centered in what is now Fort Pilar (Real Fuerte de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza), while the number of Christians reached some 6,000. This time, the Spanish in Zamboanga followed their orders, withdrawing almost immediately.
It was in response to the threat of Chinese pirate and warlord Koxinga (Cuesing/Zheng Chenggong), who took over nearby Formosa (Taiwan) after failing to preserve Ming rule from the emerging Manchu in the mainland, and demanded tribute from the Philippines. To prepare for a potential invasion, the Spanish government focused their defense in Luzon. Koxinga, however, died in June 1662, months prior to the eventual retreat from Zamboanga.
After the complete withdrawal of the Spanish, with the exception of mission areas in some parts of Mindanao such as Caraga, the charge of commanding the abandoned fortress was left to Don Alonso Makombon (Macombo/Maconbon), a Samal chief who once helped suppress the revolt of Agustin Sumuroy in Samar nearly 14 years earlier. Makombon, however, could only pledge to defend the fort as long as he would not have to deal with Maguindanao's Sultan Kudarat (Qudarat/Guserat), who had a history of fighting and diplomatically negotiating with the Spanish.
In April 1635, 300 Spanish troops and 1,000 more recruited from provinces in the Visayas landed in Zamboanga with the intent to establish a settlement. The construction of the fort (Real Fuerte de San Jose, later known as Fort Pilar) would begin on June 23 of the same year, during the administration of Governor General Juan Cerezo de Salamanca. While the Spanish met little opposition in this endeavor, the sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao saw in this move a potential rival to their hegemony.
The power of the new fortress was immediately felt when a Maguindanao fleet under Kudarat's admiral, Kapitan Laut Tagal, was defeated by the Spanish in 1636. As such, Kudarat turned to the Dutch for assistance. The Maguindanao sultan, however, would suffer further humiliation when the new Spanish Governor General, Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, scored a decisive victory against Kudarat in 1637. The sultan was allegedly wounded in this campaign, forcing him to seek refuge in Maranao territory, while his capital of Lamitan was razed to the ground. Corcuera would follow up with a campaign against Sulu, which would result with the establishment of a fort in Jolo, maintained by around 400 soldiers.
The Spanish leaving Zamboanga created a power vacuum that Kudarat was quite eager to assume, his influence extending from Zamboanga to Davao as a result of the relative peace in Mindanao. The Maguindanao sultan would live on until around 1671. Sulu, meanwhile, began to expand their effective reach in Borneo, Sabah being the exchange for the sultanate's valuable aid in resolving the civil war in nearby Brunei (1662-1673). Rajah Bendahara Pangiran Bongsu, the future Sultan Muhyiddin (Muad-din) of Brunei, consolidated discontented forces in the sultanate and gained the support of Sulu for his cause.
It would not be long before Spain would seek to reestablish presence in Mindanao. Queen Regent Mariana (Maria Anna) decreed in 1666 to restore the Zamboanga garrison, but the colonial government in Manila chose not to carry out the order due to various reasons. This included the feasibility of sustaining the garrison, as well as the prevailing peace in Mindanao at the time. It took another royal decree, this time from King Philip V (Felipe), to finally begin the reoccupation of Zamboanga in 1718. Their official policy shifted, from forcing Christianization to requesting local rulers to allow missions in their realms, with lucrative commercial ties being offered in negotiations.
6th January
On January 6, 1622, the revolt of Tamblot in Bohol was suppressed by a Spanish expedition under Juan Alcarazo, alcalde mayor (governor) of Cebu. Reportedly an influential babaylan, Tamblot was able to persuade thousands of Boholanos that he received supernatural signs indicating success in overthrowing the Spanish yoke in their land. The Spanish dated the start of Tamblot's rebellion on the feast day of Francis Xavier, December 3, in 1621.
Among his alleged miracles include making rice and wine out of cutting from bamboo, as well as making fine clothing out of banana leaves. He also preached how Spanish weaponry would have no effect on them as they would be protected by their diwata. If they were killed in battle, the diwata would resurrect them. Such was the extent of Tamblot's movement that it was said only Loboc and Baclayon remained loyal to the Spanish.
When his appeals for peace were ignored, Alcarazo assembled 50 Spanish and a thousand Cebuano troops to begin their campaign on New Year of 1622. Tamblot, meanwhile, exhorted his followers at this time.
"All the archipelago is awaiting our action. If we win this day, there is not a Visayan who will not rebel. But if we lose, those who desire to throw off the yoke of Spanish oppression must continue on under it, and we ourselves, whoever do not wisely choose rather to die fighting here, will have again to place our necks under that same yoke, harder than ever to bear."
The babaylan saw the incessant rains as sign of the diwata's assistance, as it turned out that the arquebusiers were hampered in using their guns. Tamblot also made use of the prevailing geographic advantages, taking the initiative to start the fighting with an ambush against the Spanish vanguard, composed of 300 Cebuano and 16 Spanish troops. On the other side, Tamblot attacked them with 1,500 warriors. In the process, they supposedly wounded Alcarazo with a stone thrown against his head, but it did not prove to be fatal as his helmet (morion) absorbed much of the blow.
To prevent the Spanish firearms from catching rainwater, it was said the Cebuano warriors made use of their shields to cover the guns. Despite the babaylan's rhetoric on diwata protection, Tamblot's followers saw how the reality of technological advantage rendered it useless. They retreated to a nearby stone fortress, which commanded a village having more than a thousand houses, but the organization of the combined Spanish and Cebuano troops demonstrated their power. This was where Tamblot's revolt met its end. The Spanish attributed the victory to the Holy Child (Santo Niño), but it was apparently local assistance which bolstered their chances.
Two weeks later, Alcarazo was found in Loboc to execute some of the rebels, while pardoning those who remained. It did not take long, however, before another revolt was raised in Bohol. Six months after suppressing Tamblot's movement, Alcarazo returned to the island with a larger force, although with a smaller Spanish contingent (40 soldiers). The rebellion met a similar fate as that of Tamblot.
6th January
On January 6, 1812, Melchora Aquino was born in Caloocan. Also known as "Tandang Sora," she married a cabeza named Fulgencio Ramos, who she outlived. After her husband's death, she managed the family's business ventures.
When the Philippine Revolution broke out in August 1896, she was already 84, yet she had dedicated herself to helping the revolutionaries to the extent of her capabilities. For her efforts, she was seen as the "Mother of the Revolution."
It was believed that her son's house, that of Juan Ramos, was used as a venue for what would become the "Cry of Pugad Lawin," while some accounts indicate it was Aquino's house itself which was utilized for the momentous event. Then again, her involvement earned her imprisonment on August 29. When it became apparent that she would divulge no significant information, she was exiled by the Spanish government to Guam. She would remain there for nearly seven years, until the American government returned her to the Philippines in 1903. She died on February 19, 1919.
Her remains would be interred in Manila North Cemetery until it was transferred to Himlayang Pilipino in 1970. Later, on the occasion of her bicentennial (200th birth anniversary) in 2012, to Tandang Sora Shrine in Quezon City.
7th January
On January 7, 1942, the withdrawal of Filipino and American forces to Bataan was completed after the gallant defense at Layac Junction, marking the start of what would become known as the "Battle of Bataan." The retreat to the peninsula which projected into Manila Bay was part of War Plan Orange, the prewar defensive strategy for the Philippines that General Douglas MacArthur initially deviated from. For the past month, December 1941, the Allied forces tried to confront the Japanese landings right on the beaches, but this proved to be a seemingly unrealistic response.
Thus, preparations for the defense of Bataan, decided upon on Christmas Eve of 1941, were rushed and mismanaged. This led to reduced rations as soon as the battle began. War Plan Orange, for one, provided only to accommodate supplies for around 40,000 troops, supposedly enough to sustain them for six months. Then again, some 80,000 troops retreated to Bataan, already beyond the plan's expectations.
In addition, Bataan had not yet been stocked with most of the supplies as stipulated in the plan, with some still in reserve in Manila which fell a week earlier. This made it difficult to maintain the two defense lines mandated by War Plan Orange, those in Abucay and in Mauban. The best units were utilized to keep the lines intact throughout January 1942 as the reserve lines were formed. Furthermore, the Japanese operated with fewer troops (at 40,000 initially), while their overall combat effectiveness improved relative to the Allies, particularly in terms of naval and air power. They did have problems to deal in common, such as the prevalence of disease and fatigue.
The legendary resistance at Bataan, which lasted until April 9, 1942, apparently did not derail Japanese plans elsewhere. The following areas came under Japanese control before Bataan was over: Thailand (December 9, 1941), Hong Kong (December 25, 1941), British Malaya and Singapore (February 15, 1942), Dutch East Indies (March 9, 1942). As early as February 19, Australia was hit with Japanese air raids. Still, the defense of the Philippines grew in popular consciousness, solidifying not only views on the American legacy, but also on Filipino resilience. The battle was made the theme of subsequent adaptations such as Bataan (1943), So Proudly We Hail! (1943), Cry 'Havoc' (1943), and Back to Bataan (1945).
Meanwhile, the aftermath of the battle saw the horrifying "Bataan Death March," which forced thousands of prisoners of war to travel to Capas, Tarlac by foot. Casualties from this punitive transfer ranged from 5,000 to 18,000.
The inhumane conditions of the death march also threw into serious doubt the reality of Japanese intentions, as well as their pan-Asian rhetoric, especially since many of the prisoners were Filipino soldiers.
11th January
On January 11, 1979, the first large-scale geothermal power plant in the Philippines was inaugurated at Tiwi, Albay. With an installed capacity of 110 megawatts at the time, it began the nation's path towards becoming one of the top geothermal energy producers in the world. As of 2017, some 11 percent of total energy production in the Philippines came from geothermal sources, the highest share among renewables (followed by hydro at 10 percent). The Tiwi plant, meanwhile, has since expanded to an installed capacity of 289 megawatts.
Notably, the Tiwi plant was initially built as a water-dominated geothermal system, becoming the largest of its type in the world in 1982. Average energy production from 1979 to 2019 was estimated at around 160 megawatts.
Tiwi has been the site of geothermal energy exploration long before a large-scale plant was opened. On April 12, 1967, an experimental lab in Tiwi under Dr. Arturo Alcaraz powered its first electric light bulb through geothermal steam. This was followed by the legal framework provided for by Republic Act No. 5092, approved on June 17, 1967, which mandated the promotion and regulation of energy from geothermal, natural gas, and methane gas. With technical assistance from New Zealand through the Kingston Reynolds Thom Allardis (KRTA), the 3-megawatt Tongonan plant in Leyte became the first to commercially produce geothermal power in 1977. It was later expanded to have an installed capacity of 112.5 megawatts, composed of three 37.5-megawatt plants.
By 1985, nearly 20 percent of national energy production came from geothermal sources. At the time, there were concerns about the Philippines exceeding 1,200 megawatts in geothermal power utilization within a span of 12 years to be a potential cause for increased frequency and strength of earthquakes. The country has since increased its geothermal capacity to nearly 2,000 megawatts, but such conceptual framework prevails to this day.
One recent example was the 2017 Pohang earthquake, which registered 5.4 magnitude in the Richter scale. This was regarded as one of the strongest in South Korea's modern history. A government-led expert panel eventually concluded that the earthquake may have been triggered by geothermal plant activities in the area, wherein fluid injection at high pressure supposedly affected an unknown fault. This caused reexamination of methods in tapping geothermal energy around the world.
14th January
On January 14, 1943, the Casablanca Conference between the Allied leaders (codenamed SYMBOL) began in French Morocco. Among its more significant outputs would be the demand for "unconditional surrender" of the Axis Powers. Of the so-called "Four Powers" among the Allies, or in the words of President Franklin Roosevelt the "Four Policemen", only the United States and the United Kingdom attended. Also present were Free France (represented by Charles de Gaulle, Henri Giraud) and Morocco (represented by Sultan Mohammed V).
The strategy agreed upon in Casablanca also had repercussions on Allied progress in Asia. American officers such as Admiral Ernest King felt the need to balance the war effort in the European and the Asian theaters, raising the case of the Philippines as the more immediate objective in breaking Japan's defense. British officers, however, saw logic in defeating Germany first before trying to retake the Philippines. It was eventually decided that, for the time being, resources would be allocated for the campaigns against Truk Atoll (Micronesia) and Rabaul (Papua New Guinea), both of which still under Japanese control.
Meanwhile, the Guadalcanal campaign (August 1942 to February 1943) saw relative success for what was regarded as America's first major land offensive during the course of the Pacific War, although sustaining heavy losses in the process. It also checked Japanese plans in shifting the expansion of their defensive perimeter southwards through the Solomons following their earlier loss at the Battle of Midway (June 1942).
17th January
On January 17, 1899, Commander (later Rear Admiral) Edward David Taussig formally occupied Wake Island for the United States. The American flag was said to have been raised with a dead limb of a tree as support.
Even until the Second World War, there were speculations that Spain purposely left a number of Pacific islands under its sovereignty through such treaty loopholes. The subsequent Trust Territories formed by the United Nations (UN) in 1947, however, would have made it clear that Spain retained no Pacific dominion.
The nation which made the Americans wary of was Japan, which ships they suspected were being used to gather resources there. In 1902, a definitive statement from the Japanese ambassador to the United States, Kogorō Takahira, denied any claims over Wake Island. The island had no permanent residents to date.
18th January
On January 18, 1919, the Paris Peace Conference began to formulate the peace terms between the Allied and Central Powers. Among the significant outputs of the conference involved the future of the Pacific possessions still under the German Empire. Article 22 of the subsequent Treaty of Versailles provided the following mandate:
"There are territories, such as South-West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population."
Formerly claimed by the Spanish government then centered in the Philippines, most of these Pacific islands would later come into German control through two major agreements: the 1885 Hispano-German Protocol and the 1899 German-Spanish Treaty. Only Guam and the Philippines were not ceded to the Germans, as they were eventually ceded to the United States by virtue of the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish-American War. These international shifts, however, effectively reduced the area governed by the Philippines from more than 8 million square kilometers to around 300,000.
The so-called Mandate for the German Possessions in the Pacific Ocean Lying North of the Equator, meanwhile, would be granted by the conference to Japan. The Japanese then made it their South Seas Mandate (日本委任統治領南洋群島), which they would administer until the end of the Second World War. Although the Japanese were reportedly conducting training missions in the area as early as the 1870s, the Spanish exercised their sovereignty over the islands through scattered outposts in the Marianas and the Carolinas.
19th January
On January 19, 1977, Asian-American broadcaster Iva Toguri D'Aquino was pardoned by US President Gerald Ford. Born on July 4, 1916 in Los Angeles, California, her parents moved to the United States from Japan. She graduated from the University of California in 1940 with a degree in zoology, and during the same year, she voted Republican.
In July 1941, she went to Japan to visit a sick relative and to study medicine. She was not granted a passport prior, but while she was processing it through the State Department, Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japan. She withdrew her application, deciding to remain in Japan for the duration of the Pacific War. On the part of the US government, they denied to certify her American citizenship. The Japanese government, meanwhile, pressured her to renounce her US citizenship. Toguri refused.
For a living, she found herself as a typist in Radio Tokyo (NHK, 日本放送協会), where Toguri would eventually be recruited as one of the hosts of "The Zero Hour" in 1943. Airing every day except Sundays from 6 to 7:15 PM, Tokyo time, she worked with Major Charles Cousens (Australia), Captain Wallace Ince (US), and Lieutenant Normando Reyes (Philippines).
Notably, Reyes was a broadcaster for the Allied radio station "Voice of Freedom", known for his announcement of the fall of Bataan in 1942.
While meant to be a foreign language propaganda medium by its creator, Japanese Major Shigetsugu Tsuneishi, the radio show also became an avenue for entertainment purposes, including comedy sketches, satire, and pop music. Toguri acquired the moniker "Ann" (as in "announcer") and "Orphan Annie" (a reference to the comics "Little Orphan Annie").
However, Allied soldiers who heard these radio shows gave the more enigmatic nickname "Tokyo Rose" to refer to all their female broadcasters, Toguri included, regardless of the radio names they individually used on air. The story of an alleged equivalent in the Philippines, who they called "Manila Rose", also spread among military ranks. While Army analysis indicate that said broadcasts had little effect on troop morale, it helped Allied intelligence to assess how much the Japanese knew about unit movement and dispositions.
When the war ended in 1945, American media offered a prize to gain an exclusive interview with Tokyo Rose. In dire need of money, Toguri stepped up, but was instead arrested after the interviewers reneged on their offer. With insufficient evidence for prosecution, she was released. When Toguri requested to permit her return for her child to be born in the United States, an enraged American public fueled by extensive media coverage persuaded the US government to reconsider her case. In 1949, she was found guilty, the seventh person to be convicted of treason in the history of the US.
Among her coworkers in The Zero Hour, Reyes was later suspected as a Japanese spy, but was thereafter cleared of all charges. He obtained an American citizenship. Reyes died in the Philippines on January 7, 1999. Some of his ashes were scattered over Corregidor.
22nd January
On January 22, 1878, Sulu Sultan Jamal ul-Azam granted a "permanent lease" (pajak) of his Borneo territories, notably Sabah, to Britain, represented by German diplomat Gustavus Baron von Overbeck and Alfred Dent, Esq. In exchange, the British pledged to pay the Sultan 5,000 dollars annually. The leased territory went from Pandassan River to Sibuku River.
The Sulu sultanate acquired its Borneo territory for its assistance in resolving the Brunei Civil War (1662-1673), and had since administered a maritime empire stretching from the western extremity of Mindanao to Palawan and Borneo, as affirmed by the 1836 Treaty of Peace, Protection, and Commerce between Sulu and Spain. The same treaty assumed that Sulu was under "protectorate" status of the Spanish.
Meanwhile, the British did not claim to have disenfranchised the Sultan's reign over Borneo. Baron von Overbeck, being designated by the agreement as Datu Bendahara, was understood by the Sultan as his vassal, and recognized that what they were granted was "monopoly of trade," not a cession of sovereign territory. In addition, Britain actively sought to keep the Sultan's sovereignty over his dominions if it meant they could sustain what they obtained.
The Bases of Capitulation and Peace between Spain and Sulu, however, changed the geopolitical situation. On July 22, 1878, after some two years of fighting, Jamal ul-Azam signed a treaty with the Spanish governor of Sulu, Colonel Carlos Martinez, who represented the Governor General Domingo Moriones.
While the earlier 1851 treaty between the two established the sovereignty of Spain over Sulu, mandated that Sulu raise the Spanish flag, and provided for the integration of the sultanate in the Philippines (the Spanish governor of Sulu assumed office thereafter), the 1878 treaty went further by detailing which lands would be effectively occupied by the Spanish and which would be retained by the Sultan. Annual compensation was also provided for the Sultan and his officials "for the losses they incurred" during the conflict. These two treaties posed an issue on the international status of Sulu.
For one, Britain did not recognize Spanish sovereignty over Sulu, as did any other European nation at the time. However, when the British established their North Borneo Company by 1881, and the British realized the military victory of Spain over the Sultan of Sulu, they soon expressed interest to discuss with Spain provided they will "renounce" all claims over North Borneo. Germany, which ships also went to Sulu, followed suit. Their negotiations would result to the 1885 Madrid Protocol, which made Spain renounce "claims of sovereignty" over Borneo in exchange for British and German recognition of their sovereignty over Sulu, regardless of actual occupation status within the sultanate.
Notably, neither the Sultan nor any of his datus were party to the negotiations. In the long term, Spain honored this protocol. When the 1898 Treaty of Paris was concluded, the territory of the Philippines ceded to the United States stopped at Sibutu Island, with no inch of North Borneo territory included. This was reinforced by the subsequent Treaty of Washington in 1900.
23rd January
On January 23, 1900, the Battle of Legazpi in Albay saw the retreat of Filipino troops under General Vito Belarmino to Malabog. Earlier, on January 15, General William Kobbe was appointed as American governor of Albay and Catanduanes, being tasked to commence occupation of the region. Regiments No. 43 and 47, as well as Battery G of the 3rd Artillery, were placed under Kobbe's command. In addition, Kobbe had naval support in the form of gunboats USS Helena and USS Nashville. A third gunboat, HMS Plover, joined the battle.
On the Filipino side, operations were divided into three main sectors. General Jose Ignacio Paua (Pawa) commanded the battery over Kapuntukan Hill (Capuntocan). The Artillery Corps led by Captain Alvaro Nepomuceno had at least 16 cannons. Colonel Antero Reyes and Commander Policarpio Pilgone, meanwhile, occupied five trenches. They were reinforced by sandatahanes (militia) from Legazpi, distributed across trenches and the reserve force. In all, more than a thousand troops were prepared to meet the American offensive, 600 of which were composed of the sandatahanes.
Probing attacks by the Americans estimated Filipino troops to number around 800, which was inaccurate, but it was sufficient for Kobbe to conduct a frontal assault. The Nashville, meanwhile, fired against the Kapuntukan battery. Paua attempted a counterattack, but their cannons did not put Nashville out of action. With the Filipino battery made practically ineffective, the gunboat shifted its focus on firing against the trenches until the Americans occupied all of them. In the ensuing battle, the Filipinos suffered 172 casualties, while the Americans only had seven (7).
Among those who died was Colonel Reyes, who was said to have led his troops from the trenches while leisurely walking, allegedly not minding the hail of bullets around him.
The Battle of Legazpi coincided with the first anniversary of the Filipino republic inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan. Instead of celebrating this, the residents of Legazpi saw the American flag being raised. The following day, Virac in Catanduanes was occupied by the Americans.
General Belarmino, however, pushed for an offensive to retake Legazpi and other occupied towns. After skirmishes and night attacks on January 29 and 30, he ordered a major counteroffensive on February 5, 1900. Half of the 8,000 troops gathered for the purpose were placed under Paua's command to attack Daraga. It was unsuccessful, resulting to 49 Filipino casualties. Legazpi, meanwhile, was tasked to Colonel Engracio Orense and Captain Simeon Ola. Then again, disagreements in their strategy divided their efforts. Orense and his commanders proceeded with a direct assault.
As for Ola, he decided to lure the Americans to the forests where ambush awaited them. The muddy terrain forced the troops under Colonel Walter Howe to undertake a flanking maneuver towards Ola's rear. Nonetheless, Ola's riflemen survived the attack, reappearing in the vicinity of Mayon therafter. Orense's troops were not as fortunate, with Commander Jose Arboleda slain among the many who fell from American bullets and bayonets. And thus, Legazpi would remain under American occupation.
A pylon was erected in Legazpi City to remember the battle fought on January 23, 1900.
23rd January
Did you know that Emilio Aguinaldo is the only Filipino president thus far to have delivered his inaugural address in Spanish (Español)? The following is an English translation of his speech on January 23, 1899 at Malolos.
Honorable Representatives:
I congratulate you upon having concluded your constitutional work. From this date, the Philippines will have a National Code to the just and wise precepts of which we, each and every one of us, owe blind obedience, and whose liberal and democratic guarantees also extend to all.
Hereafter, the Philippines will have a fundamental law, which will unite our people with the other nations by the strongest of solidarities; that is the solidarity of justice, of law, and of right, eternal truths, which are the basis of human dignity.
I congratulate myself also on seeing my constant efforts crowned; efforts which I continued from the time I entered the battlefield with my brave countrymen of Cavite, as did our brothers in other provinces with no arms, but bolos, to secure our liberty and independence.
And finally, I congratulate our beloved people, who from this date will cease to be anonymous and will be able with legitimate pride to proclaim to the universe the long coveted name of Philippine Republic.
We are no longer insurgents; we are no longer revolutionists; that is to say armed men desirous of destroying and annihilating the enemy. We are from now on Republicans; that is to say, men of law, able to fraternize with all other nations, with mutual respect and affection. There is nothing lacking, therefore, in order for us to be recognized and admitted as a free and independent nation.
Ah, Honorable Representatives! How much pain and bitterness do those passed days of Spanish slavery bring to our minds, and how much hope and joy do the present moments of Philippine liberty awaken in us.
Great is this day, glorious is this date; and this moment, when our beloved people rise to the apotheosis of independence, will be eternally memorable. The 23rd of January will be for the Philippines, hereafter a national feast, as is the Fourth of July for the American nation. And thus, in the same manner that God helped weak America in the last century, when she fought against powerful Albion (England), to regain her liberty and independence; He will also help us today in our identical goal, because the ways of Divine Justice are immutably the same in rectitude and wisdom.
A thousand thanks, honorable Representatives, for your parliamentary work, which enables us and establishes in a public and authentic manner, that we are a civilized nation and also a brave one; worthy, therefore, of being freely admitted into the concerts of nations.
You have justly deserved the gratitude of the country and of the government, in that you showed the entire world, by your wisdom, sound sense, and prudence, that in this remote and heretofore unknown portion of the world, the principles of European and American civilization are known, and more than known; that intelligence and hearts here are perfectly in accord with those of the most civilized nations; and that notwithstanding the calumnious voice of our eternal detractors, there is here, finally, a national spirit, which unites and forges together all Filipino hearts into a single idea and single aspiration to live independent of any foreign yoke in the democratic shadow of the Philippine Republic.
For this reason, on seeing consecrated in our constitutional work the eternal principles of authority, of liberty, of order and justice, which all civilized nations profess, as the most perfect guaranty of their actual solidarity, I feel strength, pride, and am sincerely impelled, from the bottom of my heart to shout—
Long live the Philippine Republic!
Long live the Constitution!
Every June 30 is commemorated as Philippine-Spanish Friendship Day, pursuant to Republic Act No. 9187. The date was chosen in recognition of the acknowledgment of Filipino President Emilio Aguinaldo via decree of the Spanish soldiers besieged in Baler from June 30, 1898 to June 2, 1899. Located in Tayabas (now part of Aurora Province), Baler was one of the last holdouts of Spanish colonial power in Luzon. In pursuit of human rights and honoring the terms of surrender, the Spanish were not made prisoners, but were treated as friends.
26th January
On January 26, 1942, the combined Filipino and American troops have withdrawn behind the Orion-Bagac line, the second defensive line formed in Bataan to resist the Japanese forces under General Masaharu Homma. The United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) command decided to use its reserves, mainly the Philippine Division, to reinforce the new line without leaving a significant reserve of its own.
Soon, confusion reigned on the ground as this order was reversed, the command anticipating possible Japanese maneuvers from the sea. On the same day, Homma decided to press on the offensive, ordering his commanders to move onward. The error in Japanese maps proved to be a fortuitous turn of events, as they had pounded upon a weak segment of the main Allied line, thinking it was an advanced post. Thus began the Battle for Trail Two (2).
The Japanese, however, failed to take full advantage of the troubles along Allied forces. The 65th Brigade under General Akira Nara, tasked to drive to Limay, would not attack until the following day, January 27. By then, Allied troops, primarily the 41st Infantry, had arrived to cover the gap in their defense line. Fighting would continue for two more days, but Nara was unable to pierce through what he believed was an advanced post. He would later receive orders on February 8 to suspend his offensive.
Also on January 26, General Naoki Kimura of the 16th Division began probing attacks until they found a weak sector in the area held by the Allied 1st Division two days later. This commenced the Battle of the Pockets. In the middle of this drive, Kimura was replaced by General Susumu Morioka, who brought with him soldiers from Olongapo. By then, he found his vanguard cut off from their supply lines. Although badly organized at the beginning of the fighting, the 1st Division managed to trap the Japanese in two pockets by January 31.
On February 6, Morioka would attempt to relieve the unit under Colonel Yorimasa Yoshioka, who remained established in Trail 7. While the Japanese managed to destroy the main Allied line, it failed in its objective to reach Yoshioka. It also created a salient which the Allied forces would exploit soon after. By February 12, Filipino soldiers reached Trail 5 and Trail 7, unaware that Yoshioka already made the decision to break through the pocket and marched north despite the risks involved.
The Japanese unit had become a shadow of its former self. They reached Japanese lines on February 15 with 377 survivors, reduced from the initial number of 2,690 since entering Bataan. With Yoshioka's successful return, Morioka decided to reorganize their lines, leaving their initial gains to be retaken by Allied forces.
27th January
On January 27, 1868, the Battle of Toba-Fushimi began when forces loyal to the retired shogun Yoshinobu Tokugawa launched an offensive against the Satsuma and the Chōshū who were supportive of the earlier decision to restore the political powers of Emperor Meiji. This marked the start of the so-called Boshin War. Despite the limited scale of the battle, the eventual retreat of numerically superior shogunate forces weakened the influence of the Tokugawa over the daimyos (lords). After a few months, Edo (Tokyo) would be surrendered to the imperialists, but fighting would continue well throughout the year, particularly among the northern provinces.
Meanwhile, the Meiji Restoration seemed to have caught the attention of the Philippines as well. In 1896, the Filipino revolutionary committee working in Japan claimed have acquired some 22,000 signatures to formally request Emperor Meiji's assistance for the Philippine Revolution. Through efforts of key figures like Jose Ramos and Doroteo Cortes, who provided updates on the matter, it was said they managed to gain audience with high officials of the Japanese government via an interview and made an appeal for the emperor.
The officials who they supposedly met with and gave the petition signed by 22,000 Filipinos were supposedly Prince Konoy (probably a reference to Tadahiro Konoe, great grandfather of wartime prime minister Fumimaro Konoe), Prince Aritomo Yamagata (who supposedly offered 40 million in pound sterling to buy the Philippines from Spain in 1894), and the Japanese foreign minister known as Count of Tokogana (probably a reference to Count Munemitsu Mutsu, who resided in Takinogawa, now part of Greater Tokyo Area).
Not only were weapons arranged for delivery by June or July of 1896, Ramos claimed that these officials were intending for the Philippines to be an independent country under their protection, a setup similar to what Japan would do in Korea. However, this delivery did not seem to materialize, nor did it appear that the Japanese government was inclined towards challenging the world powers for the sake of the Philippines at that moment.
Mutsu resigned as foreign minister in May 1896, while Japan suffered from a strong earthquake in June 1896. The Sanriku earthquake, at magnitude 8.5, had a death toll of some 22,000. In addition, Korea's independence also produced issues for the Japanese, as the new Korean ruler Gojong leaned towards Russian expertise to build his new military. Perhaps beyond the knowledge of many Filipinos at the time, despite Japan's victory against China in 1895, the ceding of certain territories such as Liaotung Peninsula was hindered by Russia, which then used the area as a naval base. Other factors may have intervened with the Japanese government's stance on the Philippines. Some may even argue that the interview, similar to the contemporary meeting with Japanese military personnel of the ironclad corvette Kongo, did not really produce substantial results.
Meanwhile, the immense number of signatures taken for this endeavor, even if one is to give or take a few thousand, may be a demonstration of the Katipunan's extensive network by this time. The population of the Philippines was around 7 million, which would make 22,000 a substantial number for a petition campaign.
30th January
On January 30, 1945, the Raid at Cabanatuan, also known as "The Great Raid of 1945," done by Filipino and American troops rescued over 500 prisoners from a Japanese camp in Pangatian. While mostly American and British prisoners, the saved also included Canadian, Dutch, Filipino, and Norwegian captives.
Anticipating the potential repeat of severe Japanese treatment against their prisoners, as exhibited by the so-called "Massacre of Palawan" that killed over 100 people by burning on December 14, 1944, the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) leadership intended to liberate the Cabanatuan prisoners to prevent this. Filipino intelligence, gathered under Captain Juan Pajota, reported the presence of some 7,000 Japanese soldiers in Cabanatuan as of January 27, 1945, in addition to around 1,000 troops in the vicinity at Cabu, and 800 Japanese guards in the camp itself.
The rescue force was composed of some 130 American and 280 Filipino soldiers. Even when the American commander Lieutenant Colonel Henry Mucci wanted to move despite their disadvantages, Pajota advised strongly against a "suicide" mission, recommending to wait for the Japanese forces to be diverted by the main Allied advance from the southwest. They postponed the rescue for another 24 hours.
It was said to be Pajota's idea to fly aircraft just over the area as distraction. When firing began, the prisoners thought the Japanese were trying to massacre them, but it turned out to be their salvation. Carts driven by locals were used to carry the weakened prisoners. Getting them out, however, was not the end of their journey.
As they trekked back to friendly territory, they had to pass first through a zone controlled by the Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon (Hukbalahap), which blocked them. The Huks were opposed to the Americans as they were to the Japanese. It would take the threat of having to fight both the USAFFE and the Japanese pursuing them for the Huks to permit passage. The prisoners reached Talavera by February 1.
Mucci received the Distinguished Service Cross, the second highest military decoration in the United States, for the successful rescue. While Pajota and another Filipino captain, Eduardo Joson, played leadership roles in conducting the raid, they were not qualified to receive the Silver Star, the next highest decoration. Instead, they were treated similarly as the common soldiers who participated in the raid by granting them the Bronze Star.
Many have since portrayed the raid in popular culture. The 1945 film "Back to Bataan," which starred John Wayne, featured the raid with real life film depicting the survivors. The 2005 film "The Great Raid", meanwhile, acquired the services of Captain Robert Prince as consultant. He was among the planners of the raid. Like Mucci, Captain Price also became a recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross.
January
In January 1661, Pedro Almazan (Almasan) rebelled in Ilocos Norte with Juan Magsanop of Bangui and Gaspar Cristobal of Laoag. A member of the principales from San Nicolas, Almazan emerged as the head of the so-called "trinity" of Ilocano rebel leaders when he was crowned as "King of Ilocos." The crown he used was the Crown of Mary taken from Laoag Cathedral. As heirs to the throne, Almazan's son and Cristobal's daughter were married off, becoming designated as prince and princess, as well as solidifying the ties between them.
Among their grievances include abuses done by government officials and friars being sent to the Philippines, which regardless of their backgrounds took higher positions than locals could ever hope to achieve. Almazan pledged to make as many shackles as there were Spanish in Ilocos when opportunity permits.
Encouraged by Andres Malong's campaign against Ilocos, Magsanop by January 31 declared independence at Bacarra and affirmed Almazan's kingship. At about the same time, they called on the Calanasanes to join the revolt and reinforce their ranks. However, they have overestimated Malong's victories.
During the course of February 1661, the combined Spanish and Ilocano forces, numbering a thousand troops under Alferez Lorenzo Arqueros, marched to Bacarra from the south, while another 300 from Cagayan under Maestre de Campo Juan Manalo came from the north. The rebels were eventually scattered, taking refuge in the mountains where they set up defensive positions, but Arqueros diligently fought out every rebel camp he could find.
Eventually, Magsanop was captured, but he chose to kill himself with a knife than to endure imprisonment. Almazan, meanwhile, was executed along with 16 other leaders in Vigan.
January
Did you know that January has been designated as National Bible Month and the last week of the month as National Bible Week in the Philippines? One of the earliest translations of the Christians' sacred text to any of the Philippine languages was done in 1883 by Pastor Manrique Alonzo Lallave, a former priest who translated the Gospel of Luke in Pangasinan. He would continue work on other translations until his death in 1889.
Even by the 19th century, importation and translation of the Bible into the vernacular was strictly controlled by the Spanish government. The customs administration in the Philippines thoroughly screened attempts to bring in Bibles by Protestant missions around Asia. One notable example was the Protestant Paulino Zamora, nephew of the slain priest Jacinto Zamora (of Gomburza fame), who was exiled to Chafarinas Islands in Morocco. Paulino Zamora was arrested in 1896 for distributing copies of the Bible and for suspected involvement in the Philippine Revolution.
In January 1895, Sulu Sultan Jamal ul-Kiram II paid a tribute of 10,000 pesos to the Spanish government, complying with Governor General Ramon Blanco's decree on March 1, 1894 to conduct a census and collect the appropriate taxes. The tax would then be dedicated to the Sulu development, particularly infrastructure.
The sultan's tribute, equivalent to around 8.25 million pesos today (adjusted to inflation), was meant to represent 100,000 of his subjects, but instead of collecting the tax from them, Kiram took the money from his own wealth. Whether the sultan was unwilling to antagonize his datus or unable to collect the tribute, Kiram's position in the sultanate was not quite strong.
Born on March 27, 1868, the Sulu leader then known as Rajah Muda Amirul Kiram was proclaimed sultan by his followers in 1884. Despite his clear claim to succession, Kiram being the brother of the previous sultan Badar ud-Din II (reigned 1881-1884), the Spanish government was not confident about his stances. In addition, he was challenged to the throne by Datu Ali ud-Din, grandson of Sultan Shakirullah (Datu Sakilan, reigned 1821-1823). He had support in the north of the sultanate, while Kiram was backed by the south.
The Spanish, while officially neutral, had their own preference in Datu Harun ar-Rashid, the only surviving signatory of the 1878 agreement between Sulu and Britain regarding the "permanent lease" (pajak) of Sulu's territories in North Borneo. His more stable loyalty to Spain was rewarded with appointment as their commander in Palawan and Balabac.
As the two parties fought, Rashid was in Manila trying to come up with an agreement, but neither would settle for a compromise. Kiram, in particular, refused the idea of having a regent, even if it meant Spanish recognition of his position. Soon enough, orders from Madrid buttressed Rashid's claim, although his family had not produced a sultan in over a century.
On September 24, 1886, Rashid returned to Manila where he would be formally proclaimed sultan in Malacañang in the presence of Governor General Emilio Terrero and Arab Chief Minister Sheikh Mustafa Ibn Ahmad. Probably as final resort, Kiram attempted to have British recognition, but he was given a cold shoulder. Britain already gained the Spanish renunciation of their "claims of sovereignty" over North Borneo through the 1885 Madrid Protocol, which was primary British interest in the area.
Rashid, with massive Spanish support through Sulu Governor Juan Arolas, launched a military campaign which forced Kiram and some 3,000 of his followers out of his capital at Maimbung. The Spanish suffered over 100 casualties, while the Tausug casualties ranged from 80 to 250. Kiram would keep leading the resistance against Rashid's reign, while Datu Ali ud-Din, after announcing his decision not to pursue the title of sultan after the Spanish campaigns, would retire to Patikul until his death in 1891.
Despite Rashid's rise to power, he never truly gained the trust of his people. After Arolas ended his service as governor of Sulu in 1893, Rashid proceeded to request the Spanish to allow him to retire as sultan. On December 16 of the same year, he left Jolo for Palawan, the Spanish government only too happy about the development as they saw him more as a liability in maintaining their sovereignty in Sulu.
Perhaps influenced by this succession crisis, Kiram upon ascending the throne kept the peace with the Spanish. With his payment of tribute, he finally recognized their sovereignty over Sulu. While he did not follow Rashid's example of going to Manila for his official recognition, it appeared more of caution on his part to leave Sulu altogether. Part of the reason would be seen in troubles caused by the remaining followers of the dead Datu Ali ud-Din, forcing the Spanish to act. In fact, his first trip outside the sultanate would only be in 1897, some four years after Rashid's departure.
Kiram would continue his reign long after the end of Spanish rule in the Philippines.
January
In January 1886, the Spanish campaign against Datu Utto of Buayan began under the personal command of Governor General Emilio Terrero, one of the Spanish pioneers on the use of military photogrammetry. Until two years prior to this, the Spanish believed to have successfully integrated Maguindanao when its sultan, Muhammad Makakwa, accepted the sovereignty of Spain. The Spanish government rewarded his loyalty with the designated rank of "general" and the title "Lord of Tamontaka." Spanish presence was also established as early as 1861 in Cotabato, their fortifications in Reina Regente symbolizing their newfound power in the region, but their position two decades later was still not as strong as hoped.
Makakwa's death in 1884, meanwhile, saw the emergence of Datu Utto (Uto Anwaruddin, pictured). With the Maguindanao sultanate reduced in influence in the Pulangi area, Utto began to exact tribute from neighboring territories, controlling the area from Liguasan Marsh to Lake Buluan. His control of Sarangani Bay, still free from effective Spanish occupation, ensured that Utto would continue to receive the supplies he needed to sustain his power, weapons included. In addition, Utto seemed to be creating rapport among the Maranao in the north, occupying the vacuum left by the Spanish campaigns against Sulu.
Utto also controlled the supplies that the Spanish could expect to receive in Cotabato, exposing the weakness of Spain's claim of sovereignty in the interior of Mindanao.
The Spanish, seeing how the clever Utto remained independent despite the treaties they signed up with him since at least 1864, perceived him as a threat to the relative peace in the region as he continually behaved as hegemon of Mindanao. Some even gave him the moniker "Second Kudarat," highlighting the strength he had accumulated through the years. This compelled the Spanish to attack.
By February 4, Utto's capital of Bakat (Dulawan, now Datu Piang in Maguindanao) was successfully taken, and he had since fought a defensive war. Despite his defense buildup, the combined arms of the Spanish which integrated artillery forced Utto to remain on the retreat. There were bright spots during the fighting, such as when Utto attacked Tamontaka (now Cotabato City), but overall, the conflict was not going his way. Those who felt oppressed by Utto were attracted to the Spanish side and gave them assistance, but the datu had not been beaten yet.
The wet season halted the Spanish campaign for the rest of 1886, resuming their operations only by early 1887. Through the mediation of his uncle, Datu Silungan, Utto on March 10, 1887 finally made peace with the Spanish, but he made reservations that he meant to reestablish friendship with Spain, not to surrender his independence. Still, this solicited criticism back in Manila, for the costly campaign had not fully humbled the datu and integrated his realm under the Spanish flag. In fact, the Spanish thereafter still had to request permission for passage in Utto's territories.
Nonetheless, Utto's defeat permanently reduced his influence in the region. While he continued to maintain his economic wealth, the Spanish gained the confidence of the datus in Maguindanao and Cotabato. His attempt to sponsor a new sultan in Maguindanao to succeed Makakwa's son was squashed by the ascension of the Spanish preference, Datu Dakula of Sibugay, in 1896.
1st January
On January 1, 1899, President Emilio Aguinaldo addressed the Malolos Congress to propose establishing "national solidarity" with the people of Sulu and Mindanao upon the basis of "real federation with absolute respect for their beliefs and traditions." Throughout 1898, the Aguinaldo-led government had made attempts to gain the support of the Muslim datus in the name of unity, highlighting how other ethnic groups such as those in the Cordillera have joined the cause of the Philippine Revolution. It had also warned how the Americans would curtail liberties as the Spanish had done. This was done as reports were received in Luzon on how some Muslim warriors fought against the revolutionaries as they had fought the Spanish.
2nd January
On January 2, 1985, legendary Filipino boxer Gabriel "Flash" Elorde died due to lung cancer. Fighting 118 bouts in four weight divisions during the span of his pro career, Elorde lorded over the super featherweight for seven years (1960 to 1967). This made him the longest reigning Filipino boxing champion until Donnie "Ahas" Nietes broke the record in 2014. Nietes was also a fighter in four weight divisions.
At the age of 16, Elorde made his professional debut in 1951, and was able to win the OPBF regional title for the bantamweight division the following year. It was also his first match outside the Philippines, fighting in the famed Kokugikan Arena in Japan. Meanwhile, he won his first world title when he knocked out American boxer and defending world champion Harold Gomes in the Araneta Coliseum. This was in the super featherweight division. Gomes would never fight for a title match after Elorde.
Elorde's boxing style was said to have integrated the eskrima, a Filipino martial art, and has since influenced out-boxer fighters. Even outside the ring, Elorde loomed large in the consciousness of the Filipino public. From TV commercials to films, he was present. The Elorde Awards, inaugurated in 2000 as the highest recognition of Filipino professional boxers, has been created in his honor. Among the more recent awardees are also Filipino titleholders, namely Jerwin Ancajas (super flyweight), Johnriel Casimero (bantamweight), and Pedro Taduran (minimumweight).
3rd January
On January 3, 1942, the Japanese Military Administration in the Philippines was established with the purpose of emancipation from the "oppressive domination" of the United States, and the establishment of "the Philippines for the Filipinos" as member of the Co-Prosperity Sphere in the Greater East Asia (大東亜共栄圏). Carrying over all government institutions from the Philippine Commonwealth "for the time being," as well as the freedom of religion and customs, the new administration nonetheless affirmed the severance of formal relations between the Philippines and America.
To recall, the Japanese military campaign in the Philippines began on December 8, 1941. It took less than a month before Manila came under Japanese control, on January 2, 1942.
In an address to the Diet also in January 1942, Japanese Prime Minister Hideki Tojo declared that "Japan will gladly grant the Philippines its independence so long as it cooperates and recognizes Japan's program of establishing the Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere."
Twenty days later, the Philippine Executive Commission was formed with Jorge B. Vargas appointed by General Masaharu Homma as its chairman. The commission composed of Filipinos was meant to provisionally govern the Philippines until the Second Philippine Republic was inaugurated on October 14, 1943. Each department, however, had designated Japanese advisers. Attempts to return to normalcy included the reopening of schools by June 1942, but socioeconomic conditions continued to deteriorate even as Filipino leaders were quite cooperative to the Japanese authorities.
4th January
On January 4, 1897, eleven of the 15 Martyrs of Bicol (Quince Martires del Bicol, Kaglimang Martir kan Bicol) were executed in Bagumbayan, days after being arrested upon suspicion of plotting against the Spanish, and enduring trial by military court. The remaining two were exiled, and the last two died in prison. This came at a time when much of Bicol believed the Philippine Revolution had subsided, since the region, which contributed financial and military support to the Spanish cause, barely received reports from Spanish sources. As Elias Ataviado noted of the perception in Albay, the deaths of the Quince Martires had greater immediate impact on them than even the death of Jose Rizal.
Among the Fifteen Martyrs were the following: Rev. Gabriel Prieto, Rev. Inocencio Herrera, Rev. Severino Diaz, Manuel Abella, Domingo Abella, Camilo Jacob, Macario Valentin, Cornelio Mercado, Mariano Melgarejo, Florencio Lerma, Tomas Prieto, Ramon Abella, Mariano Ordenanza, Mariano Arana, and Leon Hernandez. The first eleven cited were the ones executed in Bagumbayan on January 4, 1897. Hernandez and Ordenanza died in jail, while Arana and Ramon Abella were sent to exile to Fernando Poo (now Bioko, Equatorial Guinea).
4th January
On January 4, 1663, the Spanish in Zamboanga were ordered again to evacuate their garrison, months after failing to comply with earlier instructions to leave in consideration of the Christianized peoples in the area. It was said that the garrison was composed of 600 troops, centered in what is now Fort Pilar (Real Fuerte de Nuestra Señora del Pilar de Zaragoza), while the number of Christians reached some 6,000. This time, the Spanish in Zamboanga followed their orders, withdrawing almost immediately.
It was in response to the threat of Chinese pirate and warlord Koxinga (Cuesing/Zheng Chenggong), who took over nearby Formosa (Taiwan) after failing to preserve Ming rule from the emerging Manchu in the mainland, and demanded tribute from the Philippines. To prepare for a potential invasion, the Spanish government focused their defense in Luzon. Koxinga, however, died in June 1662, months prior to the eventual retreat from Zamboanga.
After the complete withdrawal of the Spanish, with the exception of mission areas in some parts of Mindanao such as Caraga, the charge of commanding the abandoned fortress was left to Don Alonso Makombon (Macombo/Maconbon), a Samal chief who once helped suppress the revolt of Agustin Sumuroy in Samar nearly 14 years earlier. Makombon, however, could only pledge to defend the fort as long as he would not have to deal with Maguindanao's Sultan Kudarat (Qudarat/Guserat), who had a history of fighting and diplomatically negotiating with the Spanish.
In April 1635, 300 Spanish troops and 1,000 more recruited from provinces in the Visayas landed in Zamboanga with the intent to establish a settlement. The construction of the fort (Real Fuerte de San Jose, later known as Fort Pilar) would begin on June 23 of the same year, during the administration of Governor General Juan Cerezo de Salamanca. While the Spanish met little opposition in this endeavor, the sultanates of Sulu and Maguindanao saw in this move a potential rival to their hegemony.
The power of the new fortress was immediately felt when a Maguindanao fleet under Kudarat's admiral, Kapitan Laut Tagal, was defeated by the Spanish in 1636. As such, Kudarat turned to the Dutch for assistance. The Maguindanao sultan, however, would suffer further humiliation when the new Spanish Governor General, Sebastian Hurtado de Corcuera, scored a decisive victory against Kudarat in 1637. The sultan was allegedly wounded in this campaign, forcing him to seek refuge in Maranao territory, while his capital of Lamitan was razed to the ground. Corcuera would follow up with a campaign against Sulu, which would result with the establishment of a fort in Jolo, maintained by around 400 soldiers.
The Spanish leaving Zamboanga created a power vacuum that Kudarat was quite eager to assume, his influence extending from Zamboanga to Davao as a result of the relative peace in Mindanao. The Maguindanao sultan would live on until around 1671. Sulu, meanwhile, began to expand their effective reach in Borneo, Sabah being the exchange for the sultanate's valuable aid in resolving the civil war in nearby Brunei (1662-1673). Rajah Bendahara Pangiran Bongsu, the future Sultan Muhyiddin (Muad-din) of Brunei, consolidated discontented forces in the sultanate and gained the support of Sulu for his cause.
It would not be long before Spain would seek to reestablish presence in Mindanao. Queen Regent Mariana (Maria Anna) decreed in 1666 to restore the Zamboanga garrison, but the colonial government in Manila chose not to carry out the order due to various reasons. This included the feasibility of sustaining the garrison, as well as the prevailing peace in Mindanao at the time. It took another royal decree, this time from King Philip V (Felipe), to finally begin the reoccupation of Zamboanga in 1718. Their official policy shifted, from forcing Christianization to requesting local rulers to allow missions in their realms, with lucrative commercial ties being offered in negotiations.
6th January
On January 6, 1622, the revolt of Tamblot in Bohol was suppressed by a Spanish expedition under Juan Alcarazo, alcalde mayor (governor) of Cebu. Reportedly an influential babaylan, Tamblot was able to persuade thousands of Boholanos that he received supernatural signs indicating success in overthrowing the Spanish yoke in their land. The Spanish dated the start of Tamblot's rebellion on the feast day of Francis Xavier, December 3, in 1621.
Among his alleged miracles include making rice and wine out of cutting from bamboo, as well as making fine clothing out of banana leaves. He also preached how Spanish weaponry would have no effect on them as they would be protected by their diwata. If they were killed in battle, the diwata would resurrect them. Such was the extent of Tamblot's movement that it was said only Loboc and Baclayon remained loyal to the Spanish.
When his appeals for peace were ignored, Alcarazo assembled 50 Spanish and a thousand Cebuano troops to begin their campaign on New Year of 1622. Tamblot, meanwhile, exhorted his followers at this time.
"All the archipelago is awaiting our action. If we win this day, there is not a Visayan who will not rebel. But if we lose, those who desire to throw off the yoke of Spanish oppression must continue on under it, and we ourselves, whoever do not wisely choose rather to die fighting here, will have again to place our necks under that same yoke, harder than ever to bear."
The babaylan saw the incessant rains as sign of the diwata's assistance, as it turned out that the arquebusiers were hampered in using their guns. Tamblot also made use of the prevailing geographic advantages, taking the initiative to start the fighting with an ambush against the Spanish vanguard, composed of 300 Cebuano and 16 Spanish troops. On the other side, Tamblot attacked them with 1,500 warriors. In the process, they supposedly wounded Alcarazo with a stone thrown against his head, but it did not prove to be fatal as his helmet (morion) absorbed much of the blow.
To prevent the Spanish firearms from catching rainwater, it was said the Cebuano warriors made use of their shields to cover the guns. Despite the babaylan's rhetoric on diwata protection, Tamblot's followers saw how the reality of technological advantage rendered it useless. They retreated to a nearby stone fortress, which commanded a village having more than a thousand houses, but the organization of the combined Spanish and Cebuano troops demonstrated their power. This was where Tamblot's revolt met its end. The Spanish attributed the victory to the Holy Child (Santo Niño), but it was apparently local assistance which bolstered their chances.
Two weeks later, Alcarazo was found in Loboc to execute some of the rebels, while pardoning those who remained. It did not take long, however, before another revolt was raised in Bohol. Six months after suppressing Tamblot's movement, Alcarazo returned to the island with a larger force, although with a smaller Spanish contingent (40 soldiers). The rebellion met a similar fate as that of Tamblot.
6th January
On January 6, 1812, Melchora Aquino was born in Caloocan. Also known as "Tandang Sora," she married a cabeza named Fulgencio Ramos, who she outlived. After her husband's death, she managed the family's business ventures.
When the Philippine Revolution broke out in August 1896, she was already 84, yet she had dedicated herself to helping the revolutionaries to the extent of her capabilities. For her efforts, she was seen as the "Mother of the Revolution."
It was believed that her son's house, that of Juan Ramos, was used as a venue for what would become the "Cry of Pugad Lawin," while some accounts indicate it was Aquino's house itself which was utilized for the momentous event. Then again, her involvement earned her imprisonment on August 29. When it became apparent that she would divulge no significant information, she was exiled by the Spanish government to Guam. She would remain there for nearly seven years, until the American government returned her to the Philippines in 1903. She died on February 19, 1919.
Her remains would be interred in Manila North Cemetery until it was transferred to Himlayang Pilipino in 1970. Later, on the occasion of her bicentennial (200th birth anniversary) in 2012, to Tandang Sora Shrine in Quezon City.
7th January
On January 7, 1942, the withdrawal of Filipino and American forces to Bataan was completed after the gallant defense at Layac Junction, marking the start of what would become known as the "Battle of Bataan." The retreat to the peninsula which projected into Manila Bay was part of War Plan Orange, the prewar defensive strategy for the Philippines that General Douglas MacArthur initially deviated from. For the past month, December 1941, the Allied forces tried to confront the Japanese landings right on the beaches, but this proved to be a seemingly unrealistic response.
Thus, preparations for the defense of Bataan, decided upon on Christmas Eve of 1941, were rushed and mismanaged. This led to reduced rations as soon as the battle began. War Plan Orange, for one, provided only to accommodate supplies for around 40,000 troops, supposedly enough to sustain them for six months. Then again, some 80,000 troops retreated to Bataan, already beyond the plan's expectations.
In addition, Bataan had not yet been stocked with most of the supplies as stipulated in the plan, with some still in reserve in Manila which fell a week earlier. This made it difficult to maintain the two defense lines mandated by War Plan Orange, those in Abucay and in Mauban. The best units were utilized to keep the lines intact throughout January 1942 as the reserve lines were formed. Furthermore, the Japanese operated with fewer troops (at 40,000 initially), while their overall combat effectiveness improved relative to the Allies, particularly in terms of naval and air power. They did have problems to deal in common, such as the prevalence of disease and fatigue.
The legendary resistance at Bataan, which lasted until April 9, 1942, apparently did not derail Japanese plans elsewhere. The following areas came under Japanese control before Bataan was over: Thailand (December 9, 1941), Hong Kong (December 25, 1941), British Malaya and Singapore (February 15, 1942), Dutch East Indies (March 9, 1942). As early as February 19, Australia was hit with Japanese air raids. Still, the defense of the Philippines grew in popular consciousness, solidifying not only views on the American legacy, but also on Filipino resilience. The battle was made the theme of subsequent adaptations such as Bataan (1943), So Proudly We Hail! (1943), Cry 'Havoc' (1943), and Back to Bataan (1945).
Meanwhile, the aftermath of the battle saw the horrifying "Bataan Death March," which forced thousands of prisoners of war to travel to Capas, Tarlac by foot. Casualties from this punitive transfer ranged from 5,000 to 18,000.
The inhumane conditions of the death march also threw into serious doubt the reality of Japanese intentions, as well as their pan-Asian rhetoric, especially since many of the prisoners were Filipino soldiers.
11th January
On January 11, 1979, the first large-scale geothermal power plant in the Philippines was inaugurated at Tiwi, Albay. With an installed capacity of 110 megawatts at the time, it began the nation's path towards becoming one of the top geothermal energy producers in the world. As of 2017, some 11 percent of total energy production in the Philippines came from geothermal sources, the highest share among renewables (followed by hydro at 10 percent). The Tiwi plant, meanwhile, has since expanded to an installed capacity of 289 megawatts.
Notably, the Tiwi plant was initially built as a water-dominated geothermal system, becoming the largest of its type in the world in 1982. Average energy production from 1979 to 2019 was estimated at around 160 megawatts.
Tiwi has been the site of geothermal energy exploration long before a large-scale plant was opened. On April 12, 1967, an experimental lab in Tiwi under Dr. Arturo Alcaraz powered its first electric light bulb through geothermal steam. This was followed by the legal framework provided for by Republic Act No. 5092, approved on June 17, 1967, which mandated the promotion and regulation of energy from geothermal, natural gas, and methane gas. With technical assistance from New Zealand through the Kingston Reynolds Thom Allardis (KRTA), the 3-megawatt Tongonan plant in Leyte became the first to commercially produce geothermal power in 1977. It was later expanded to have an installed capacity of 112.5 megawatts, composed of three 37.5-megawatt plants.
By 1985, nearly 20 percent of national energy production came from geothermal sources. At the time, there were concerns about the Philippines exceeding 1,200 megawatts in geothermal power utilization within a span of 12 years to be a potential cause for increased frequency and strength of earthquakes. The country has since increased its geothermal capacity to nearly 2,000 megawatts, but such conceptual framework prevails to this day.
One recent example was the 2017 Pohang earthquake, which registered 5.4 magnitude in the Richter scale. This was regarded as one of the strongest in South Korea's modern history. A government-led expert panel eventually concluded that the earthquake may have been triggered by geothermal plant activities in the area, wherein fluid injection at high pressure supposedly affected an unknown fault. This caused reexamination of methods in tapping geothermal energy around the world.
14th January
On January 14, 1943, the Casablanca Conference between the Allied leaders (codenamed SYMBOL) began in French Morocco. Among its more significant outputs would be the demand for "unconditional surrender" of the Axis Powers. Of the so-called "Four Powers" among the Allies, or in the words of President Franklin Roosevelt the "Four Policemen", only the United States and the United Kingdom attended. Also present were Free France (represented by Charles de Gaulle, Henri Giraud) and Morocco (represented by Sultan Mohammed V).
The strategy agreed upon in Casablanca also had repercussions on Allied progress in Asia. American officers such as Admiral Ernest King felt the need to balance the war effort in the European and the Asian theaters, raising the case of the Philippines as the more immediate objective in breaking Japan's defense. British officers, however, saw logic in defeating Germany first before trying to retake the Philippines. It was eventually decided that, for the time being, resources would be allocated for the campaigns against Truk Atoll (Micronesia) and Rabaul (Papua New Guinea), both of which still under Japanese control.
Meanwhile, the Guadalcanal campaign (August 1942 to February 1943) saw relative success for what was regarded as America's first major land offensive during the course of the Pacific War, although sustaining heavy losses in the process. It also checked Japanese plans in shifting the expansion of their defensive perimeter southwards through the Solomons following their earlier loss at the Battle of Midway (June 1942).
17th January
On January 17, 1899, Commander (later Rear Admiral) Edward David Taussig formally occupied Wake Island for the United States. The American flag was said to have been raised with a dead limb of a tree as support.
Although located more than 2,400 kilometers away from Guam and nearly 5,000 kilometers from Manila, the Spanish government officially laid claim to the island and administered it from the Philippines. After the conclusion of the Spanish-American War, Wake became unclaimed and unoccupied, a situation taken advantage of by the Americans. This also preempted the Spanish cession of her Pacific possessions to Germany for 25 million pesetas through a treaty signed on February 12, 1899. A potential gray area in the treaty, however, might have kept the Germans from trying to assert any territorial claims over Wake Island.
Even until the Second World War, there were speculations that Spain purposely left a number of Pacific islands under its sovereignty through such treaty loopholes. The subsequent Trust Territories formed by the United Nations (UN) in 1947, however, would have made it clear that Spain retained no Pacific dominion.
The nation which made the Americans wary of was Japan, which ships they suspected were being used to gather resources there. In 1902, a definitive statement from the Japanese ambassador to the United States, Kogorō Takahira, denied any claims over Wake Island. The island had no permanent residents to date.
18th January
On January 18, 1919, the Paris Peace Conference began to formulate the peace terms between the Allied and Central Powers. Among the significant outputs of the conference involved the future of the Pacific possessions still under the German Empire. Article 22 of the subsequent Treaty of Versailles provided the following mandate:
"There are territories, such as South-West Africa and certain of the South Pacific Islands, which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population."
Formerly claimed by the Spanish government then centered in the Philippines, most of these Pacific islands would later come into German control through two major agreements: the 1885 Hispano-German Protocol and the 1899 German-Spanish Treaty. Only Guam and the Philippines were not ceded to the Germans, as they were eventually ceded to the United States by virtue of the 1898 Treaty of Paris that ended the Spanish-American War. These international shifts, however, effectively reduced the area governed by the Philippines from more than 8 million square kilometers to around 300,000.
The so-called Mandate for the German Possessions in the Pacific Ocean Lying North of the Equator, meanwhile, would be granted by the conference to Japan. The Japanese then made it their South Seas Mandate (日本委任統治領南洋群島), which they would administer until the end of the Second World War. Although the Japanese were reportedly conducting training missions in the area as early as the 1870s, the Spanish exercised their sovereignty over the islands through scattered outposts in the Marianas and the Carolinas.
19th January
On January 19, 1977, Asian-American broadcaster Iva Toguri D'Aquino was pardoned by US President Gerald Ford. Born on July 4, 1916 in Los Angeles, California, her parents moved to the United States from Japan. She graduated from the University of California in 1940 with a degree in zoology, and during the same year, she voted Republican.
In July 1941, she went to Japan to visit a sick relative and to study medicine. She was not granted a passport prior, but while she was processing it through the State Department, Pearl Harbor was attacked by Japan. She withdrew her application, deciding to remain in Japan for the duration of the Pacific War. On the part of the US government, they denied to certify her American citizenship. The Japanese government, meanwhile, pressured her to renounce her US citizenship. Toguri refused.
For a living, she found herself as a typist in Radio Tokyo (NHK, 日本放送協会), where Toguri would eventually be recruited as one of the hosts of "The Zero Hour" in 1943. Airing every day except Sundays from 6 to 7:15 PM, Tokyo time, she worked with Major Charles Cousens (Australia), Captain Wallace Ince (US), and Lieutenant Normando Reyes (Philippines).
Notably, Reyes was a broadcaster for the Allied radio station "Voice of Freedom", known for his announcement of the fall of Bataan in 1942.
While meant to be a foreign language propaganda medium by its creator, Japanese Major Shigetsugu Tsuneishi, the radio show also became an avenue for entertainment purposes, including comedy sketches, satire, and pop music. Toguri acquired the moniker "Ann" (as in "announcer") and "Orphan Annie" (a reference to the comics "Little Orphan Annie").
However, Allied soldiers who heard these radio shows gave the more enigmatic nickname "Tokyo Rose" to refer to all their female broadcasters, Toguri included, regardless of the radio names they individually used on air. The story of an alleged equivalent in the Philippines, who they called "Manila Rose", also spread among military ranks. While Army analysis indicate that said broadcasts had little effect on troop morale, it helped Allied intelligence to assess how much the Japanese knew about unit movement and dispositions.
When the war ended in 1945, American media offered a prize to gain an exclusive interview with Tokyo Rose. In dire need of money, Toguri stepped up, but was instead arrested after the interviewers reneged on their offer. With insufficient evidence for prosecution, she was released. When Toguri requested to permit her return for her child to be born in the United States, an enraged American public fueled by extensive media coverage persuaded the US government to reconsider her case. In 1949, she was found guilty, the seventh person to be convicted of treason in the history of the US.
Among her coworkers in The Zero Hour, Reyes was later suspected as a Japanese spy, but was thereafter cleared of all charges. He obtained an American citizenship. Reyes died in the Philippines on January 7, 1999. Some of his ashes were scattered over Corregidor.
22nd January
On January 22, 1878, Sulu Sultan Jamal ul-Azam granted a "permanent lease" (pajak) of his Borneo territories, notably Sabah, to Britain, represented by German diplomat Gustavus Baron von Overbeck and Alfred Dent, Esq. In exchange, the British pledged to pay the Sultan 5,000 dollars annually. The leased territory went from Pandassan River to Sibuku River.
The Sulu sultanate acquired its Borneo territory for its assistance in resolving the Brunei Civil War (1662-1673), and had since administered a maritime empire stretching from the western extremity of Mindanao to Palawan and Borneo, as affirmed by the 1836 Treaty of Peace, Protection, and Commerce between Sulu and Spain. The same treaty assumed that Sulu was under "protectorate" status of the Spanish.
Meanwhile, the British did not claim to have disenfranchised the Sultan's reign over Borneo. Baron von Overbeck, being designated by the agreement as Datu Bendahara, was understood by the Sultan as his vassal, and recognized that what they were granted was "monopoly of trade," not a cession of sovereign territory. In addition, Britain actively sought to keep the Sultan's sovereignty over his dominions if it meant they could sustain what they obtained.
The Bases of Capitulation and Peace between Spain and Sulu, however, changed the geopolitical situation. On July 22, 1878, after some two years of fighting, Jamal ul-Azam signed a treaty with the Spanish governor of Sulu, Colonel Carlos Martinez, who represented the Governor General Domingo Moriones.
While the earlier 1851 treaty between the two established the sovereignty of Spain over Sulu, mandated that Sulu raise the Spanish flag, and provided for the integration of the sultanate in the Philippines (the Spanish governor of Sulu assumed office thereafter), the 1878 treaty went further by detailing which lands would be effectively occupied by the Spanish and which would be retained by the Sultan. Annual compensation was also provided for the Sultan and his officials "for the losses they incurred" during the conflict. These two treaties posed an issue on the international status of Sulu.
For one, Britain did not recognize Spanish sovereignty over Sulu, as did any other European nation at the time. However, when the British established their North Borneo Company by 1881, and the British realized the military victory of Spain over the Sultan of Sulu, they soon expressed interest to discuss with Spain provided they will "renounce" all claims over North Borneo. Germany, which ships also went to Sulu, followed suit. Their negotiations would result to the 1885 Madrid Protocol, which made Spain renounce "claims of sovereignty" over Borneo in exchange for British and German recognition of their sovereignty over Sulu, regardless of actual occupation status within the sultanate.
Notably, neither the Sultan nor any of his datus were party to the negotiations. In the long term, Spain honored this protocol. When the 1898 Treaty of Paris was concluded, the territory of the Philippines ceded to the United States stopped at Sibutu Island, with no inch of North Borneo territory included. This was reinforced by the subsequent Treaty of Washington in 1900.
23rd January
On January 23, 1900, the Battle of Legazpi in Albay saw the retreat of Filipino troops under General Vito Belarmino to Malabog. Earlier, on January 15, General William Kobbe was appointed as American governor of Albay and Catanduanes, being tasked to commence occupation of the region. Regiments No. 43 and 47, as well as Battery G of the 3rd Artillery, were placed under Kobbe's command. In addition, Kobbe had naval support in the form of gunboats USS Helena and USS Nashville. A third gunboat, HMS Plover, joined the battle.
On the Filipino side, operations were divided into three main sectors. General Jose Ignacio Paua (Pawa) commanded the battery over Kapuntukan Hill (Capuntocan). The Artillery Corps led by Captain Alvaro Nepomuceno had at least 16 cannons. Colonel Antero Reyes and Commander Policarpio Pilgone, meanwhile, occupied five trenches. They were reinforced by sandatahanes (militia) from Legazpi, distributed across trenches and the reserve force. In all, more than a thousand troops were prepared to meet the American offensive, 600 of which were composed of the sandatahanes.
Probing attacks by the Americans estimated Filipino troops to number around 800, which was inaccurate, but it was sufficient for Kobbe to conduct a frontal assault. The Nashville, meanwhile, fired against the Kapuntukan battery. Paua attempted a counterattack, but their cannons did not put Nashville out of action. With the Filipino battery made practically ineffective, the gunboat shifted its focus on firing against the trenches until the Americans occupied all of them. In the ensuing battle, the Filipinos suffered 172 casualties, while the Americans only had seven (7).
Among those who died was Colonel Reyes, who was said to have led his troops from the trenches while leisurely walking, allegedly not minding the hail of bullets around him.
The Battle of Legazpi coincided with the first anniversary of the Filipino republic inaugurated in Malolos, Bulacan. Instead of celebrating this, the residents of Legazpi saw the American flag being raised. The following day, Virac in Catanduanes was occupied by the Americans.
General Belarmino, however, pushed for an offensive to retake Legazpi and other occupied towns. After skirmishes and night attacks on January 29 and 30, he ordered a major counteroffensive on February 5, 1900. Half of the 8,000 troops gathered for the purpose were placed under Paua's command to attack Daraga. It was unsuccessful, resulting to 49 Filipino casualties. Legazpi, meanwhile, was tasked to Colonel Engracio Orense and Captain Simeon Ola. Then again, disagreements in their strategy divided their efforts. Orense and his commanders proceeded with a direct assault.
As for Ola, he decided to lure the Americans to the forests where ambush awaited them. The muddy terrain forced the troops under Colonel Walter Howe to undertake a flanking maneuver towards Ola's rear. Nonetheless, Ola's riflemen survived the attack, reappearing in the vicinity of Mayon therafter. Orense's troops were not as fortunate, with Commander Jose Arboleda slain among the many who fell from American bullets and bayonets. And thus, Legazpi would remain under American occupation.
A pylon was erected in Legazpi City to remember the battle fought on January 23, 1900.
23rd January
Did you know that Emilio Aguinaldo is the only Filipino president thus far to have delivered his inaugural address in Spanish (Español)? The following is an English translation of his speech on January 23, 1899 at Malolos.
Honorable Representatives:
I congratulate you upon having concluded your constitutional work. From this date, the Philippines will have a National Code to the just and wise precepts of which we, each and every one of us, owe blind obedience, and whose liberal and democratic guarantees also extend to all.
Hereafter, the Philippines will have a fundamental law, which will unite our people with the other nations by the strongest of solidarities; that is the solidarity of justice, of law, and of right, eternal truths, which are the basis of human dignity.
I congratulate myself also on seeing my constant efforts crowned; efforts which I continued from the time I entered the battlefield with my brave countrymen of Cavite, as did our brothers in other provinces with no arms, but bolos, to secure our liberty and independence.
And finally, I congratulate our beloved people, who from this date will cease to be anonymous and will be able with legitimate pride to proclaim to the universe the long coveted name of Philippine Republic.
We are no longer insurgents; we are no longer revolutionists; that is to say armed men desirous of destroying and annihilating the enemy. We are from now on Republicans; that is to say, men of law, able to fraternize with all other nations, with mutual respect and affection. There is nothing lacking, therefore, in order for us to be recognized and admitted as a free and independent nation.
Ah, Honorable Representatives! How much pain and bitterness do those passed days of Spanish slavery bring to our minds, and how much hope and joy do the present moments of Philippine liberty awaken in us.
Great is this day, glorious is this date; and this moment, when our beloved people rise to the apotheosis of independence, will be eternally memorable. The 23rd of January will be for the Philippines, hereafter a national feast, as is the Fourth of July for the American nation. And thus, in the same manner that God helped weak America in the last century, when she fought against powerful Albion (England), to regain her liberty and independence; He will also help us today in our identical goal, because the ways of Divine Justice are immutably the same in rectitude and wisdom.
A thousand thanks, honorable Representatives, for your parliamentary work, which enables us and establishes in a public and authentic manner, that we are a civilized nation and also a brave one; worthy, therefore, of being freely admitted into the concerts of nations.
You have justly deserved the gratitude of the country and of the government, in that you showed the entire world, by your wisdom, sound sense, and prudence, that in this remote and heretofore unknown portion of the world, the principles of European and American civilization are known, and more than known; that intelligence and hearts here are perfectly in accord with those of the most civilized nations; and that notwithstanding the calumnious voice of our eternal detractors, there is here, finally, a national spirit, which unites and forges together all Filipino hearts into a single idea and single aspiration to live independent of any foreign yoke in the democratic shadow of the Philippine Republic.
For this reason, on seeing consecrated in our constitutional work the eternal principles of authority, of liberty, of order and justice, which all civilized nations profess, as the most perfect guaranty of their actual solidarity, I feel strength, pride, and am sincerely impelled, from the bottom of my heart to shout—
Long live the Philippine Republic!
Long live the Constitution!
Long live their illustrious authors, the Representatives of the first Philippine Congress!
Every June 30 is commemorated as Philippine-Spanish Friendship Day, pursuant to Republic Act No. 9187. The date was chosen in recognition of the acknowledgment of Filipino President Emilio Aguinaldo via decree of the Spanish soldiers besieged in Baler from June 30, 1898 to June 2, 1899. Located in Tayabas (now part of Aurora Province), Baler was one of the last holdouts of Spanish colonial power in Luzon. In pursuit of human rights and honoring the terms of surrender, the Spanish were not made prisoners, but were treated as friends.
26th January
On January 26, 1942, the combined Filipino and American troops have withdrawn behind the Orion-Bagac line, the second defensive line formed in Bataan to resist the Japanese forces under General Masaharu Homma. The United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) command decided to use its reserves, mainly the Philippine Division, to reinforce the new line without leaving a significant reserve of its own.
Soon, confusion reigned on the ground as this order was reversed, the command anticipating possible Japanese maneuvers from the sea. On the same day, Homma decided to press on the offensive, ordering his commanders to move onward. The error in Japanese maps proved to be a fortuitous turn of events, as they had pounded upon a weak segment of the main Allied line, thinking it was an advanced post. Thus began the Battle for Trail Two (2).
The Japanese, however, failed to take full advantage of the troubles along Allied forces. The 65th Brigade under General Akira Nara, tasked to drive to Limay, would not attack until the following day, January 27. By then, Allied troops, primarily the 41st Infantry, had arrived to cover the gap in their defense line. Fighting would continue for two more days, but Nara was unable to pierce through what he believed was an advanced post. He would later receive orders on February 8 to suspend his offensive.
Also on January 26, General Naoki Kimura of the 16th Division began probing attacks until they found a weak sector in the area held by the Allied 1st Division two days later. This commenced the Battle of the Pockets. In the middle of this drive, Kimura was replaced by General Susumu Morioka, who brought with him soldiers from Olongapo. By then, he found his vanguard cut off from their supply lines. Although badly organized at the beginning of the fighting, the 1st Division managed to trap the Japanese in two pockets by January 31.
On February 6, Morioka would attempt to relieve the unit under Colonel Yorimasa Yoshioka, who remained established in Trail 7. While the Japanese managed to destroy the main Allied line, it failed in its objective to reach Yoshioka. It also created a salient which the Allied forces would exploit soon after. By February 12, Filipino soldiers reached Trail 5 and Trail 7, unaware that Yoshioka already made the decision to break through the pocket and marched north despite the risks involved.
The Japanese unit had become a shadow of its former self. They reached Japanese lines on February 15 with 377 survivors, reduced from the initial number of 2,690 since entering Bataan. With Yoshioka's successful return, Morioka decided to reorganize their lines, leaving their initial gains to be retaken by Allied forces.
27th January
On January 27, 1868, the Battle of Toba-Fushimi began when forces loyal to the retired shogun Yoshinobu Tokugawa launched an offensive against the Satsuma and the Chōshū who were supportive of the earlier decision to restore the political powers of Emperor Meiji. This marked the start of the so-called Boshin War. Despite the limited scale of the battle, the eventual retreat of numerically superior shogunate forces weakened the influence of the Tokugawa over the daimyos (lords). After a few months, Edo (Tokyo) would be surrendered to the imperialists, but fighting would continue well throughout the year, particularly among the northern provinces.
Meanwhile, the Meiji Restoration seemed to have caught the attention of the Philippines as well. In 1896, the Filipino revolutionary committee working in Japan claimed have acquired some 22,000 signatures to formally request Emperor Meiji's assistance for the Philippine Revolution. Through efforts of key figures like Jose Ramos and Doroteo Cortes, who provided updates on the matter, it was said they managed to gain audience with high officials of the Japanese government via an interview and made an appeal for the emperor.
The officials who they supposedly met with and gave the petition signed by 22,000 Filipinos were supposedly Prince Konoy (probably a reference to Tadahiro Konoe, great grandfather of wartime prime minister Fumimaro Konoe), Prince Aritomo Yamagata (who supposedly offered 40 million in pound sterling to buy the Philippines from Spain in 1894), and the Japanese foreign minister known as Count of Tokogana (probably a reference to Count Munemitsu Mutsu, who resided in Takinogawa, now part of Greater Tokyo Area).
Not only were weapons arranged for delivery by June or July of 1896, Ramos claimed that these officials were intending for the Philippines to be an independent country under their protection, a setup similar to what Japan would do in Korea. However, this delivery did not seem to materialize, nor did it appear that the Japanese government was inclined towards challenging the world powers for the sake of the Philippines at that moment.
Mutsu resigned as foreign minister in May 1896, while Japan suffered from a strong earthquake in June 1896. The Sanriku earthquake, at magnitude 8.5, had a death toll of some 22,000. In addition, Korea's independence also produced issues for the Japanese, as the new Korean ruler Gojong leaned towards Russian expertise to build his new military. Perhaps beyond the knowledge of many Filipinos at the time, despite Japan's victory against China in 1895, the ceding of certain territories such as Liaotung Peninsula was hindered by Russia, which then used the area as a naval base. Other factors may have intervened with the Japanese government's stance on the Philippines. Some may even argue that the interview, similar to the contemporary meeting with Japanese military personnel of the ironclad corvette Kongo, did not really produce substantial results.
Meanwhile, the immense number of signatures taken for this endeavor, even if one is to give or take a few thousand, may be a demonstration of the Katipunan's extensive network by this time. The population of the Philippines was around 7 million, which would make 22,000 a substantial number for a petition campaign.
30th January
On January 30, 1945, the Raid at Cabanatuan, also known as "The Great Raid of 1945," done by Filipino and American troops rescued over 500 prisoners from a Japanese camp in Pangatian. While mostly American and British prisoners, the saved also included Canadian, Dutch, Filipino, and Norwegian captives.
Anticipating the potential repeat of severe Japanese treatment against their prisoners, as exhibited by the so-called "Massacre of Palawan" that killed over 100 people by burning on December 14, 1944, the United States Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) leadership intended to liberate the Cabanatuan prisoners to prevent this. Filipino intelligence, gathered under Captain Juan Pajota, reported the presence of some 7,000 Japanese soldiers in Cabanatuan as of January 27, 1945, in addition to around 1,000 troops in the vicinity at Cabu, and 800 Japanese guards in the camp itself.
The rescue force was composed of some 130 American and 280 Filipino soldiers. Even when the American commander Lieutenant Colonel Henry Mucci wanted to move despite their disadvantages, Pajota advised strongly against a "suicide" mission, recommending to wait for the Japanese forces to be diverted by the main Allied advance from the southwest. They postponed the rescue for another 24 hours.
It was said to be Pajota's idea to fly aircraft just over the area as distraction. When firing began, the prisoners thought the Japanese were trying to massacre them, but it turned out to be their salvation. Carts driven by locals were used to carry the weakened prisoners. Getting them out, however, was not the end of their journey.
As they trekked back to friendly territory, they had to pass first through a zone controlled by the Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon (Hukbalahap), which blocked them. The Huks were opposed to the Americans as they were to the Japanese. It would take the threat of having to fight both the USAFFE and the Japanese pursuing them for the Huks to permit passage. The prisoners reached Talavera by February 1.
Mucci received the Distinguished Service Cross, the second highest military decoration in the United States, for the successful rescue. While Pajota and another Filipino captain, Eduardo Joson, played leadership roles in conducting the raid, they were not qualified to receive the Silver Star, the next highest decoration. Instead, they were treated similarly as the common soldiers who participated in the raid by granting them the Bronze Star.
Many have since portrayed the raid in popular culture. The 1945 film "Back to Bataan," which starred John Wayne, featured the raid with real life film depicting the survivors. The 2005 film "The Great Raid", meanwhile, acquired the services of Captain Robert Prince as consultant. He was among the planners of the raid. Like Mucci, Captain Price also became a recipient of the Distinguished Service Cross.
January
In January 1661, Pedro Almazan (Almasan) rebelled in Ilocos Norte with Juan Magsanop of Bangui and Gaspar Cristobal of Laoag. A member of the principales from San Nicolas, Almazan emerged as the head of the so-called "trinity" of Ilocano rebel leaders when he was crowned as "King of Ilocos." The crown he used was the Crown of Mary taken from Laoag Cathedral. As heirs to the throne, Almazan's son and Cristobal's daughter were married off, becoming designated as prince and princess, as well as solidifying the ties between them.
Among their grievances include abuses done by government officials and friars being sent to the Philippines, which regardless of their backgrounds took higher positions than locals could ever hope to achieve. Almazan pledged to make as many shackles as there were Spanish in Ilocos when opportunity permits.
Encouraged by Andres Malong's campaign against Ilocos, Magsanop by January 31 declared independence at Bacarra and affirmed Almazan's kingship. At about the same time, they called on the Calanasanes to join the revolt and reinforce their ranks. However, they have overestimated Malong's victories.
During the course of February 1661, the combined Spanish and Ilocano forces, numbering a thousand troops under Alferez Lorenzo Arqueros, marched to Bacarra from the south, while another 300 from Cagayan under Maestre de Campo Juan Manalo came from the north. The rebels were eventually scattered, taking refuge in the mountains where they set up defensive positions, but Arqueros diligently fought out every rebel camp he could find.
Eventually, Magsanop was captured, but he chose to kill himself with a knife than to endure imprisonment. Almazan, meanwhile, was executed along with 16 other leaders in Vigan.
January
Did you know that January has been designated as National Bible Month and the last week of the month as National Bible Week in the Philippines? One of the earliest translations of the Christians' sacred text to any of the Philippine languages was done in 1883 by Pastor Manrique Alonzo Lallave, a former priest who translated the Gospel of Luke in Pangasinan. He would continue work on other translations until his death in 1889.
Even by the 19th century, importation and translation of the Bible into the vernacular was strictly controlled by the Spanish government. The customs administration in the Philippines thoroughly screened attempts to bring in Bibles by Protestant missions around Asia. One notable example was the Protestant Paulino Zamora, nephew of the slain priest Jacinto Zamora (of Gomburza fame), who was exiled to Chafarinas Islands in Morocco. Paulino Zamora was arrested in 1896 for distributing copies of the Bible and for suspected involvement in the Philippine Revolution.
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